Richest man in cemetery
Prof Dr. Sohail Ansari
‘No
one can make you feel inferior without your consent’.
Eleanor Roosevelt
· One who
sees money as the end in itself has bright chances to end up as the richest man
in cemetery.
From Wikipedia, the
free encyclopedia
Intercultural communication is a discipline that studies communication across
different cultures and social groups, or how culture affects communication. It
is used to describe the wide range of communication processes and problems that
naturally appear within an organization or social context made up of
individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and educational
backgrounds. Intercultural communication is sometimes used synonymously with cross-cultural
communication. In this sense it
seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures act, communicate and perceive the world around them. Many people in intercultural
business communication argue that culture determines how individuals encode
messages, what medium they choose for transmitting them, and the way messages
are interpreted.[1]
With regard to intercultural communication proper, it studies situations where people from different cultural backgrounds interact. Aside from language, intercultural communication focuses on social attributes, thought patterns, and the cultures of different groups of people. It also involves understanding the different cultures, languages and customs of people from other countries. Intercultural communication plays a role in social sciences such as anthropology, cultural studies, linguistics, psychology and communication studies. Intercultural communication is also referred to as the base for international businesses. There are several cross-cultural service providers around who can assist with the development of intercultural communication skills. Research is a major part of the development of intercultural communication skills.[2][3]
With regard to intercultural communication proper, it studies situations where people from different cultural backgrounds interact. Aside from language, intercultural communication focuses on social attributes, thought patterns, and the cultures of different groups of people. It also involves understanding the different cultures, languages and customs of people from other countries. Intercultural communication plays a role in social sciences such as anthropology, cultural studies, linguistics, psychology and communication studies. Intercultural communication is also referred to as the base for international businesses. There are several cross-cultural service providers around who can assist with the development of intercultural communication skills. Research is a major part of the development of intercultural communication skills.[2][3]
Cross-cultural
business communication
Cross-cultural
business communication is very helpful in building cultural intelligence
through coaching and training in cross-cultural communication, cross-cultural
negotiation, multicultural conflict resolution, customer service, business and
organizational communication. Cross-cultural understanding is not just for
incoming expats. Cross-cultural understanding begins with those responsible for
the project and reaches those delivering the service or content. The ability to
communicate, negotiate and effectively work with people from other cultures is
vital to international business.
The
problems in intercultural communication usually come from problems in message
transmission. In communication between people of the same culture, the person
who receives the message interprets it based on values, beliefs, and
expectations for behavior similar to those of the person who sent the message.
When this happens, the way the message is interpreted by the receiver is likely
to be fairly similar to what the speaker intended. However, when the receiver
of the message is a person from a different culture, the receiver uses
information from his or her culture to interpret the message. The message that
the receiver interprets may be very different from what the speaker intended.
Attribution
is the process in which people look for an explanation of another person's behavior.
When someone does not understand another, he/she usually blames the confusion
on the other's "stupidity, deceit, or craziness".
Effective
communication depends on the informal understandings among the parties involved
that are based on the trust developed between them. When trust exists, there is
implicit understanding within communication, cultural differences may be
overlooked, and problems can be dealt with more easily. The meaning of trust
and how it is developed and communicated vary across societies. Similarly, some
cultures have a greater propensity to be trusting than others.
Nonverbal
communication is behavior that communicates without words—though it often may
be accompanied by words. Minor variations in body language, speech rhythms, and
punctuality often cause mistrust and misperception of the situation among
cross-cultural parties.
Kinesic
behavior is communication through body movement—e.g., posture, gestures, facial
expressions and eye contact. The meaning of such behavior varies across
countries.
Occulesics
are a form of kinesics that includes eye contact and the use of the eyes to
convey messages.
Proxemics
concern the influence of proximity and space on communication (e.g., in terms
of personal space and in terms of office layout). For example, space
communicates power in the US and Germany.
Paralanguage
refers to how something is said, rather than the content of what is said—e.g.,
rate of speech, tone and inflection of voice, other noises, laughing, yawning,
and silence.
Object
language or material culture refers to how we communicate through material
artifacts—e.g., architecture, office design and furniture, clothing, cars,
cosmetics, and time. In monochronic cultures, time is experienced linearly and
as something to be spent, saved, made up, or wasted. Time orders life, and
people tend to concentrate on one thing at a time. In polychronic cultures,
people tolerate many things happening simultaneously and emphasize involvement
with people. In these cultures, people may be highly distractible, focus on
several things at once, and change plans often.
Important
points to consider:
·
Develop cultural
sensitivity
·
Anticipate the meaning
the receiver will get.
·
Careful encoding
·
Use words, pictures,
and gestures.
·
Avoid slang, idioms,
regional sayings.
·
Selective transmission
·
Build relationships,
face-to-face if possible.
·
Careful decoding of
feedback
·
Get feedback from
multiple parties.
·
Improve listening and
observation skills.
·
Follow-up actions
There
is a connection between a person's personality traits and the ability to adapt
to the host-country's environment—including the ability to communicate within
that environment.
Two
key personality traits are openness and resilience. Openness includes traits
such as tolerance for ambiguity, extrovertedness, and open-mindedness.
Resilience includes having an internal locus of control, persistence, tolerance
for ambiguity, and resourcefulness.
These
factors, combined with the person's cultural and racial identity and level of
preparedness for change, comprise that person's potential for adaptation.
The
following types of theories can be distinguished in different strands: focus on
effective outcomes, on accommodation or adaption, on identity negotiation and management, on communication networks, on acculturation and adjustment.[4]
·
Cultural convergence
·
In a relatively closed
social system in which communication among members is unrestricted, the system
as a whole will tend to converge over time toward a state of
greater cultural uniformity. The system will tend to diverge toward
diversity when communication is restricted.[5]
·
This theory focuses on
linguistic strategies to decrease or increase communicative distances.
·
Intercultural adaption
·
This theory is
designed to explain how communicators adapt to each other in
"purpose-related encounters", at which cultural factors need to be
incorporated.[6] According to intercultural adaptation theory communicative
competence is a measure of adaptation which is equated with assimilation. As
Gudykunst and Kim (2003) put it, "cross-cultural adaptation process
involves a continuous interplay of decultruation and acculturation that brings
about change in strangers [immigrant] in the direction of assimilation, the
highest degree of adaptation theoretically conceivable" (p. 360).
This approach was first theorized at the height of colonialism in Victorian
England by Herbert Spencer who applied a notion of adaptation he borrowed from
Francis Galton to social adjustment and efficient outcomes in wealth production.
Communicative competence is defined as thinking, feeling, and pragmatically
behaving in ways defined as appropriate by the dominant mainstream culture.
Communication competence is an outcomes based measure conceptualized as
functional/operational conformity to environmental criteria such as working
conditions. Beyond this, adaptation means "the need to conform"
(p. 373) to mainstream "objective reality" and "accepted
modes of experience" (Gudykunst and Kim, 2003, p. 378).[7]Adaptation theory advocates that immigrants and migrants
"deculturize" and "unlearn" themselves and assimilate
mainstream host cultural values, beliefs, goals, and modes of behavior so that
they may become "fit to live with" (Gudykunst and Kim, 2003,
p. 358). Adaptation is thus postulated as a zero-sum process where the
minority person is conceptualized as something like a full finite container so
that as some new goal or belief is added or learned something old must be
"unlearned". Prominent current promoters of assimilation repeat
Spencer's arguments stating that for the sake of the success of the mainstream
culture ("effective progress") adaptation/assimilation must be in the
direction of the dominant mainstream culture. While Spencer postulated
mainstream culture as the dominant ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving,
Gudykunst and Kim (2003) define the dominant group as a simple numerical
majority ("differential size of the population" Gudykunst and Kim,
2003, p. 360).[7] Any tendency by the newcomer to retain their original
identity (language, religious faiths, ethnic associations including attention
to "ethnic media", beliefs, ways of thinking, et cetera) is defined
by Gudykunst and Kim (2003) as operational/functional unfitness (p. 376),
mental illness (pp. 372–373, 376), and communication incompetence,
dispositions linked by Spencer and Galton and later Gudykunst and Kim (2003),
to inherent personality predispositions and traits such as being close-minded
(p. 369), emotionally immature (p. 381), ethnocentric (p. 376),
and lacking cognitive complexity (pp. 382, 383). Conformity pressure has
been defined since W. E B. Dubois in 1902 as symbolic violence especially when
a minority cannot conform even if they wish to due to inherent properties such
as disabilities, race, gender, ethnicity, and so forth. Forced compliance/assimilation
based on majority group coercion constitutes what Pierre Bourdieu writing in
the 1960s and dealing with issues of intercultural communication and conflict
called symbolic violence (in English, Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a Theory
of Practice. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge Univ Press). As Bourdieu (1977)
maintains, the effect of symbolic violence such as host cultural coercion, the
catalyst for "positive" cross-cultural adaptation according to
Gudykunst and Kim (2003), results in the personal disintegration of the
minority person's psyche. If the coercive power is great enough and the
self-efficacy and self-esteem of the minority immigrant is destroyed, the
effect leads to a mis-recognition of power relations situated in the social matrix
of a given field. For example, in the process of reciprocal gift exchange in
the Kabyle society of Algeria, where there is asymmetry in wealth between the
two parties the better endowed giver "can impose a strict relation of
hierarchy and debt upon the receiver."[8]
·
In its most general
form, co-cultural communication refers to interactions among underrepresented
and dominant group members.[9] Co-cultures include but are not limited to people of
color, women, people with disabilities, gay men and lesbians, and those in the
lower social classes. Co-cultural theory, as developed by Mark P. Orbe, looks
at the strategic ways in which co-cultural group members communicate with
others. In addition, a co-cultural framework provides an explanation for how
different persons communicate based on six factors.
·
Cultural identity
theory
·
Networks and outgroup
communication competence
·
Networks and
acculturation
·
Communication
acculturation
·
This theory attempts
to portray "cross-cultural adaptation as a collaborative effort in which a
stranger and the receiving environment are engaged in a joint effort."[10]
·
Anxiety/Uncertainty
management
·
When strangers
communicate with hosts, they experience uncertainty and anxiety. Strangers need
to manage their uncertainty as well as their anxiety in order to be able to
communicate effectively with hosts and then to try to develop accurate
predictions and explanations for hosts' behaviors.
·
Assimilation and
adaption are not permanent outcomes of the adaption process; rather, they are
temporary outcomes of the communication process between hosts and immigrants.
"Alienation or assimilation, therefore, of a group or an individual, is an
outcome of the relationship between deviant behavior and neglectful
communication."[11]
·
Meaning of meanings theory – "A misunderstanding takes place
when people assume a word has a direct connection with its referent. A common
past reduces misunderstanding. Definition, metaphor, feedforward, and Basic
English are partial linguistic remedies for a lack of shared experience."[12]
·
Face negotiation
theory – "Members
of collectivistic, high-context cultures have concerns for mutual face and
inclusion that lead them to manage conflict with another person by avoiding,
obliging, or compromising. Because of concerns for self-face and autonomy,
people from individualistic, low-context cultures manage conflict by dominating
or through problem solving"[13]
·
Standpoint theory – An individual's experiences,
knowledge, and communication behaviors are shaped in large part by the social
groups to which they belong. Individuals sometimes view things similarly, but
other times have very different views in which they see the world. The ways in
which they view the world are shaped by the experiences they have and through
the social group they identify themselves to be a part of.[14][15] "Feminist standpoint theory claims that the social
groups to which we belong shape what we know and how we communicate.[16] The theory is derived from the Marxist position that
economically oppressed classes can access knowledge unavailable to the socially
privileged and can generate distinctive accounts, particularly knowledge about
social relations."[17]
·
Stranger theory – At least one of the persons in an intercultural
encounter is a stranger. Strangers are a 'hyperaware' of cultural differences
and tend to overestimate the effect of cultural identity on the behavior of
people in an alien society, while blurring individual distinctions.
·
Feminist genre theory – Evaluates communication by identifying feminist speakers
and reframing their speaking qualities as models for women's liberation.
·
Genderlect theory – "Male-female conversation is
cross-cultural communication. Masculine and feminine styles of discourse are
best viewed as two distinct cultural dialects rather than as inferior or
superior ways of speaking. Men's report talk focuses on status and
independence. Women's support talk seeks human connection."[18]
·
Cultural critical studies theory – The theory states that the mass media
impose the dominant ideology on the rest of society, and the connotations of
words and images are fragments of ideology that perform an unwitting service
for the ruling elite.
Intercultural
communication is competent when it accomplishes the objectives in a manner that
is appropriate to the context and relationship. Intercultural communication
thus needs to bridge the dichotomy between appropriateness and effectiveness:[19] Proper means of intercultural communication leads to a 15%
decrease in miscommunication.[20]
·
Appropriateness. Valued rules, norms, and expectations of the
relationship are not violated significantly.
·
Effectiveness. Valued goals or rewards (relative to costs
and alternatives) are accomplished.
Competent communication is an interaction that is seen as effective in achieving
certain rewarding objectives in a way that is also related to the context in
which the situation occurs. In other words, it is a conversation with an
achievable goal that is used at an appropriate time/location.[19]
Intercultural
communication can be linked with identity, which means the competent
communicator is the person who can affirm others' avowed identities. As well as
goal attainment is also a focus within intercultural competence and it involves
the communicator to convey a sense of communication appropriateness and
effectiveness in diverse cultural contexts.[19]
Ethnocentrism
plays a role in intercultural communication. The capacity to avoid
ethnocentrism is the foundation of intercultural communication competence.
Ethnocentrism is the inclination to view one's own group as natural and
correct, and all others as aberrant.
People
must be aware that to engage and fix intercultural communication there is no
easy solution and there is not only one way to do so. Listed below are some of
the components of intercultural competence.[19]
·
Context: A judgement
that a person is competent is made in both a relational and situational
context.This means that competence is not defined as a single attribute,
meaning someone could be very strong in one section and only moderately good in
another. Situationally speaking competence can be defined differently for
different cultures. For example, eye contact shows competence in western
cultures whereas, Asian cultures find too much eye contact disrespectful.
·
Appropriateness: This
means that your behaviours are acceptable and proper for the expectations of
any given culture.
·
Effectiveness: The
behaviours that lead to the desired outcome being achieved.
·
Knowledge: This has to
do with the vast information you have to have on the person's culture that you
are interacting with. This is important so you can interpret meanings and
understand culture-general and culture-specific knowledge.
·
Motivations:This has
to do with emotional associations as they communicate interculturally. Feelings
which are your reactions to thoughts and experiences have to do with
motivation. Intentions are thoughts that guide your choices, it is a goal or
plan that directs your behaviour. These two things play a part in motivation.[19]
The
following are ways to improve communication competence:
·
Display of interest:
showing respect and positive regard for the other person.
·
Orientation to
knowledge: Terms people use to explain themselves and their perception of the
world.
·
Empathy: Behaving in
ways that shows you understand the world as others do.
·
interaction
management: A skill in which you regulate conversations.
·
Task role behaviour:
initiate ideas that encourage problem solving activities.
·
Relational role
behaviour: interpersonal harmony and mediation.
·
Tolerance for
ambiguity: The ability to react to new situations with little discomfort.
·
Proficiency in the
host culture language: understanding the grammar and vocabulary.
·
Understanding language
pragmatics: how to use politeness strategies in making requests and how to
avoid giving out too much information.
·
Being sensitive and
aware to nonverbal communication patterns in other cultures.
·
Being aware of
gestures that may be offensive or mean something different in a host culture
rather than your own home culture.
·
Understanding a
culture's proximity in physical space and paralinguistic sounds to convey their
intended meaning.[21]
·
Flexibility.
·
Tolerating high levels
of uncertainty.
·
Reflectiveness.
·
Open-mindedness.
·
Sensitivity.
·
Adaptability.
Verbal
communication consist of messages being sent and received continuously with the
speaker and the listener, it is focused on the way messages are portrayed.
Verbal communication is based on language and use of expression, the tone in
which the sender of the message relays the communication can determine how the
message is received and in what context.
Factors that affect verbal communication:
·
Tone of voice
·
Use of descriptive
words
·
Emphasis on certain
phrases
·
Volume of voice
The
way a message is received is dependent on these factors as they give a greater
interpretation for the receiver as to what is meant by the message. By
emphasizing a certain phrase with the tone of voice, this indicates that it is
important and should be focused more on.
Along
with these attributes, verbal communication is also accompanied with non-verbal
cues. These cues make the message clearer and give the listener an indication
of what way the information should be received.[22]
Example of non-verbal cues
·
Facial expressions
·
Hand gestures
·
Use of objects
·
Body movement
In
terms of intercultural communication there are language barriers which are
effected by verbal forms of communication. In this instance there is
opportunity for miscommunication between two or more parties.[23] Other barriers that contribute to miscommunication would
be the type of words chosen in conversation. do to different cultures there are
different meaning in vocabulary chosen, this allows for a message between the
sender and receiver to be misconstrued.[24]
Nonverbal
communication is behaviour
that communicates without words—though it may often be accompanied by words.
Nonverbal behaviour can include things such as
·
Facial expressions and
gestures
·
Clothing
·
Movement
·
Posture
When
these actions are paired with verbal communication, a message is created and
sent out. A form of nonverbal communication is kinesic behaviour. Kinesic
behaviour is communication through body movement—e.g., posture, gestures,
facial expressions and eye contact. The meaning of such behaviour varies across
countries and affects intercultural communication. A form of kinesic nonverbal
communication is eye contact and the use of the eyes to convey messages.
Overall, nonverbal communication gives clues to what is being said verbally by
physical portrayals.
Nonverbal communication techniques used around
the world and in multiple cultures.
Nonverbal
communication and kinesic is not the only way to communicate without
words. Proxemics, a form of nonverbal communication,
deals with the influence of proximity and space on communication. Another form
of nonverbal behaviour and communication dealing with intercultural
communication is paralanguage. Paralanguage refers to how something is said, rather than the content
of what is said—e.g., rate of speech, tone and inflection of voice, other
noises, laughing, yawning, and silence. Paralanguage will be later touched on
in the verbal section of intercultural communication.
Nonverbal
communication has been shown to account for between 65% and 93% of interpreted
communication.[26] Minor variations in body language, speech rhythms, and
punctuality often cause mistrust and misperception of the situation among
cross-cultural parties. This is where nonverbal communication can cause
problems with intercultural communication. Misunderstandings with nonverbal communication
can lead to miscommunication and insults with cultural differences. For
example, a handshake in one culture may be recognized as appropriate, whereas
another culture may recognize it as rude or inappropriate.[26]
Nonverbal
communication can be used without the use of verbal communication. This can be
used as a coding system for people who do not use verbal behaviour to
communicate in different cultures, where speaking is not allowed.[27] An facial expression can give cues to another person and
send a message, without using verbal communication.
Something
that usually goes unnoticed in cultures and communication is that clothing and
the way people dress is used as a form of nonverbal communication. What a
person wears can tell a lot about them. For example, whether someone is poor or
rich, young or old or if they have specific cultures and beliefs can all be
said through clothing and style. This is a form of nonverbal communication.
Overall,
nonverbal communication is a very important concept in intercultural
communication.
Library resources about
Intercultural communication |
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