No leader is a leader in his own right
By Prof
Dr Sohail Ansari “We have not created the Heavens and the
Earth and whatever is between them in sport. We have not created
them but for a serious end: but the greater part of them understands it not’ (44:38-39)
Leader is a leader but not in his own right
· Almost every leader who claims to be a leader
in his own right has hitched a free ride on the rising star of now has-been.
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Frame of reference
ˌ
A set of criteria or stated values in relation to which
measurements or judgements can be made.
"the observer interprets what he sees in terms of his
own cultural frame of reference"
a
set of ideas, conditions, or assumptions that determine how something will be
approached, perceived, or understood <a Marxian frame
of reference>
Theory
1.
a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain
something, especially one based on general principles independent of the thing
to be explained.
"Theories represent
tentative solutions to problems." A theory is a
generalization about a phenomenon, an explanation of how or why something
occurs. Indeed, any statments that explain what is measured or described--any
general statements about cause or effect--are theory based,
at least implicitly.
Definition of theory
plural
theories
1. 1: the
analysis of a set of facts in their relation to one another
2.
a : a belief,
policy, or procedure proposed or followed as the basis of action <her method is based on the theory that all children want to learn>b : an ideal or hypothetical set of
facts, principles, or circumstances —often used in the phrase in
theory <in theory, we have always
advocated freedom for all>
3.
5: a plausible or scientifically acceptable general
principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena <the wave theory of light>
4.
6a : a
hypothesis assumed for the sake of argument or investigationb : an unproved assumption : conjecturec : a body of theorems presenting a concise systematic view
of a subject <theory of equations>
Study.
a detailed investigation and analysis of a subject
or situation.
"a study of a sample of 5,000 children"
Most of the time previous studies
means exactly that: studies published were disseminated in the past that report
results of research findings. This could mean the authors tested a specific
hypothesis, test the tenets of the theory, or tried to answer a specific
research question. For the most part studies are published in peer-reviewed
journal articles, however research findings are also sometimes disseminated as
standalone monographs, independent reports, or as books or chapters in books.
On the other hand, theories are proposed explanations of observed phenomena or relationships, usually based on some systematic analysis of the existing literature, or on the preponderance of evidence observed in case studies. To give you a concrete example, take a look at Kluger and DeNisi 1996 (Psychological Bulletin). This is a great example of both a previous study and a theory. In this paper, the author started by asking the research question does feedback always have a positive effect on performance? They did a meta-analysis of studies, and found that in approximately 40% of the cases the answer was no. This part of the paper contains empirical evidence, and would be considered reporting research findings. They then go on to review the research literature, summarizing and synthesizing what is known about feedback and how it works, and propose what they called "feedback intervention theory" to explain the conditions under which feedback works best in the conditions under which feedback doesn't work as well. This part of the paper is clearly the proposition of a theory. Last but not least, they test the tenets of the theory they have just proposed by conducting a second meta-analysis of the literature, and finding that many of the explanatory mechanisms they proposed in their theory are in fact responsible for the differences in feedback effectiveness observed in the literature. This last piece of the paper would also be considered reporting of research findings
On the other hand, theories are proposed explanations of observed phenomena or relationships, usually based on some systematic analysis of the existing literature, or on the preponderance of evidence observed in case studies. To give you a concrete example, take a look at Kluger and DeNisi 1996 (Psychological Bulletin). This is a great example of both a previous study and a theory. In this paper, the author started by asking the research question does feedback always have a positive effect on performance? They did a meta-analysis of studies, and found that in approximately 40% of the cases the answer was no. This part of the paper contains empirical evidence, and would be considered reporting research findings. They then go on to review the research literature, summarizing and synthesizing what is known about feedback and how it works, and propose what they called "feedback intervention theory" to explain the conditions under which feedback works best in the conditions under which feedback doesn't work as well. This part of the paper is clearly the proposition of a theory. Last but not least, they test the tenets of the theory they have just proposed by conducting a second meta-analysis of the literature, and finding that many of the explanatory mechanisms they proposed in their theory are in fact responsible for the differences in feedback effectiveness observed in the literature. This last piece of the paper would also be considered reporting of research findings
Previous studies can
refer to many materials inclusive articles, conference proceedings, theses,
monographs, books etc being published in the similar domain you are studying
right now. These materials likely to contain research problem, research objectives,
literature review on previous theoretical frameworks, hypotheses (if
quantitative research), findings, discussions, conclusions etc.
Theory refers to the theoretical
frameworks, empirical tested models etc. that your current study is trying to underpin
on. Without them,the study is at risk and might not survive or staying
afloat upon challenging / questioning by authority / scholars in the related
domain.
Hypotheses building are derived from
your current conceptual framework / research model and not from previous
studies nor theoretical frameworks etc. However, your current conceptual
framework or research model is adapted / derived / based on / underpinned on
the previous theoretical frameworks etc.
When
reviewing previous studies, one should assess the level of evidence that is
provided.
The following editorial in THE JOURNAL OF BONE AND JOINT SURGERY for example classifies types of studies according to the level of evidence
The following editorial in THE JOURNAL OF BONE AND JOINT SURGERY for example classifies types of studies according to the level of evidence
What is a meta analysis in research?
Meta-analysis is a
quantitative, formal, epidemiological study design used to systematically
assess the results of previous research to derive conclusions
about that body of research. Typically, but not necessarily, the
study is based on randomized, controlled clinical trials.
A theoretical framework is
a collection of interrelated concepts, like a theory but not necessarily so
well worked-out. A theoretical framework guides your research, determining
what things you will measure, and what statistical relationships you will look
for.
A conceptual framework is
defined as a network or a “plane” of linked concepts.Conceptual framework analysis offers a procedure of
theorization for building conceptual frameworks based on grounded theory method.
Definition. A literature review surveys
books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular
issue, area of research, or theory, and by
so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these
works in relation to the research problem being investigated.
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