Man eats to live
Prof Dr. Sohail Ansari
Try
not to become a man of success, but rather try to become a man of value. Albert
Einstein
·
Man
and animal are similar in their biological needs but man eats to live and
animal lives to eat.
Soft power
From Wikipedia, the
free encyclopedia
Soft power is
a concept developed by Joseph Nye of Harvard University to describe the ability to attract and
co-opt rather than by coercion (hard power), using force or giving money as a means
of persuasion. Soft power is the ability to shape the
preferences of others through appeal and attraction. A defining feature of soft
power is that it is noncoercive; the currency of soft power is culture,
political values, and foreign policies. Recently, the term has also been used
in changing and influencing social and public opinion through relatively less
transparent channels and lobbying through powerful political and non-political
organizations. In 2012, Nye explained that with soft power, "the
best propaganda is not propaganda", further
explaining that during the Information Age, "credibility is the scarcest
resource."[1]
Joseph
Nye coined the term in a 1990 book, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature
of American Power. In this book, he wrote: “when one country gets other
countries to want what it wants-might be called co-optive or soft power in
contrast with the hard or command power of ordering others to do what it
wants.”[2] He further developed the concept in his 2004 book, Soft
Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. The term is now widely used
in international affairs by analysts and statesmen. For example, the US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates spoke of the need to enhance American soft power by
"a dramatic increase in spending on the civilian instruments of national security – diplomacy, strategic
communications, foreign assistance,
civic action and economic
reconstruction and
development."[3] In 2011, as Xi Jinping was preparing to take power from General Secretary Hu Jintao, the 17th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist
Party devoted a whole
plenary session to the issue of culture, with the final Communiqué declaring
that it was a national goal to "build our country into a socialist
cultural superpower."[4] And in 2014, Xi announced, "We should increase
China's soft power, give a good Chinese narrative, and better communicate
China's messages to the world."[5]
According
to the 2015 Soft Power World Rankings report from Comres, Portland
Communications, and Facebook, the United Kingdom currently holds the top spot in soft
power, followed by Germany in second place. The top ten is
completed by the United States, France, Canada, Australia, Switzerland, Japan, Sweden, Netherlands.[6][7][8] According to the 2016 Monocle Soft Power Survey,
the United States holds the top spot in soft power.[9] The Elcano Global Presence Report scores
the European Union highest for soft presence when
considered as a whole,[10] and ranks the United States first by sovereign state.[11][12] It includes China, Russia, Spain and Italy in the top ten.
Contents
[hide]
_by_Joseph_Nye.jpg)
Joseph Nye's 2004 book describing the concept
of "soft power"
Joseph Nye introduced the concept of "soft power" in the
late 1980s.[13] For Nye, power is the ability to influence the behavior of
others to get the outcomes you want. There are several ways one can achieve
this: you can coerce them with threats; you can induce them with payments; or
you can attract and co-opt them to want what you want. This soft power –
getting others to want the outcomes you want – co-opts people rather than
coerces them.[2]
It
can be contrasted with 'hard power', which is the use of coercion and payment. Soft power can be
wielded not just by states but also by all actors in international politics,
such as NGOs or international institutions.[14] It is also considered the "second face of power"
that indirectly allows you to obtain the outcomes you want. A country's soft
power, according to Nye, rests on three resources: "its culture (in places
where it is attractive to others), its political values (when it lives up to
them at home and abroad), and its foreign policies (when others see them as
legitimate and having moral authority)."[15]
"A country may obtain the outcomes it wants in world
politics because other countries – admiring its values, emulating its example,
aspiring to its level of prosperity and openness – want to follow it. In this
sense, it is also important to set the agenda and attract others in world
politics, and not only to force them to change by threatening military force or
economic sanctions. This soft power – getting others to want the outcomes that
you want – co-opts people rather than coerces them."[16]
Soft
power resources are the assets that produce attraction which often leads to
acquiescence.[16]Nye asserts that, "Seduction is always more effective than
coercion, and many values like democracy, human rights, and individual
opportunities are deeply seductive."[17] Angelo Codevilla observed that an often overlooked
essential aspect of soft power is that different parts of populations are
attracted or repelled by different things, ideas, images, or prospects.[18] Soft power is hampered when policies, culture, or values
repel others instead of attracting them.
In
his book, Nye argues that soft power is a more difficult instrument for
governments to wield than hard power for two reasons: many of its critical
resources are outside the control of governments, and soft power tends to
"work indirectly by shaping the environment for policy, and sometimes takes
years to produce the desired outcomes."[17][19] The book identifies three broad categories of soft power:
"culture", "political values", and "policies."
In The
Future of Power (2011), Nye reiterates that soft power is a
descriptive, rather than a normative, concept.[20] Therefore, soft power can be wielded for nefarious
purposes. "Hitler, Stalin, and Mao all possessed a great deal of soft power in the eyes of
their acolytes, but that did not make it good. It is not necessarily better to
twist minds than to twist arms."[20] Nye also claims that soft power does not contradict the
international relations theory of realism.
"Soft power is not a form of idealism or liberalism. It is simply a form
of power, one way of getting desired outcomes."[21]
Limitations of the
concept[
Soft power has been criticized as being
ineffective by authors such as Niall Ferguson in the preface to Colossus. Neorealist and
other rationalist and neorationalist authors (with the exception of Stephen Walt) dismiss soft power out of hand as they assert that actors in
international relations respond to only two types of incentives: economic
incentives and force.
As
a concept, it can be difficult to distinguish between soft power from hard
power. For example, Janice Bially Mattern argues that George W. Bush's use of the phrase "you are either with
us or with the terrorists" was in fact an exercise of hard power. Though
military and economic force was not used to pressure other states to join its
coalition, a kind of force – representational force – was used. This kind of
force threatens the identity of its partners, forcing them to comply or risk being
labelled as evil. This being the case, soft power is therefore not so soft.[22] However, rationalist authors[who?] would merely see this as an 'implied threat', and that
direct economic or military sanctions would likely follow from being 'against
us'.
The
first attempt to measure soft power through a composite index was created and
published by the Institute
for Government and the media
company Monocle in 2010.[23] The IfG-Monocle Soft Power Index combined a range of
statistical metrics and subjective panel scores to measure the soft power
resources of 26 countries. The metrics were organized according to a framework
of five sub-indices including culture, diplomacy, education,
business/innovation, and government. The index is said to measure the soft
power resources of countries, and does not translate directly into ability
influence. Monocle has published an annual Soft Power
Survey since then. As of 2016/17, the list is calculated using around
50 factors that indicate the use of soft power, including the number of
cultural missions (primarily language schools), Olympic medals, the quality of a country's architecture and business brands.[9]
The Soft Power 30, which includes a foreword by Joseph Nye, is a ranking of
countries' soft power produced and published by the media company Portland in
2015. The ranking is based on "the quality of a country’s political
institutions, the extent of their cultural appeal, the strength of their
diplomatic network, the global reputation of their higher education system, the
attractiveness of their economic model, and a country’s digital engagement with
the world."[24][25][26]
The Elcano
Global Presence Report scores the European Union first for soft presence when its member
states are excluded and the EU is considered as a whole.[11]
Soft
power, then, represents the third behavioral way of getting the outcomes you
want. Soft power is contrasted with hard power, which has historically been the
predominant realist measure of national power, through quantitative metrics such as population size, concrete military assets, or a nation's gross domestic product. But having such resources does not always
produce the desired outcomes, as the United States discovered in the Vietnam
War. The extent of attraction can be measured by public opinion polls, by elite
interviews, and case studies.[citation needed]
Nye
argues that soft power is more than influence, since influence can also rest on
the hard power of threats or payments. And soft power is more than just
persuasion or the ability to move people by argument, though that is an
important part of it. It is also the ability to attract, and attraction often
leads to acquiescence.[citation needed]
In international
relations, soft power is
generated only in part by what the government does through its policies and
public diplomacy. The generation of soft power is also affected in positive
(and negative) ways by a host of non-state actors within and outside the
country. Those actors affect both the general public and governing elites in
other countries, and create an enabling or disabling environment for government
policies.[citation needed]
In
some cases, soft power enhances the probability of other elites adopting
policies that allow one to achieve preferred outcomes. In other cases, where
being seen as friendly to another country is seen as a local political kiss of
death, the decline or absence of soft power will prevent a government from
obtaining particular goals. But even in such instances, the interactions of
civil societies and non-state actors may help to further general milieu goals
such as democracy, liberty, and development. Soft power is not the possession
of any one country or actor.[citation needed]
The
success of soft power heavily depends on the actor's reputation within the international
community, as well as the flow
of information between actors. Thus, soft power is often associated with the
rise of globalization and neoliberal international relations theory. Popular culture and mass media are regularly identified as a source of soft power,[27] as is the spread of a national language or a particular
set of normative structures; a nation with a large amount
of soft power and the good will that engenders it inspire others to acculturate, avoiding the need for expensive hard power expenditures.[citation needed] More
particularly, international news was found crucial in shaping the image
and reputation of foreign countries. The high prominence of the US in
international news, for example, has been linked to its soft power.[28] Positive news coverage was associated with positive
international views, while negative news coverage with negative views.[29]
Because
soft power has appeared as an alternative to raw power politics, it is often
embraced by ethically-minded scholars and policymakers. But soft power is a
descriptive rather than a normative concept. Like any form of power, it can be
wielded for good or bad purposes. While soft power can be used with bad
intentions and wreak horrible consequences, it differs in terms of means. It is
on this dimension that one might construct a normative preference for greater
use of soft power.[citation needed]
|
|
|
Academics
have engaged in several debates around soft power. These have included:
·
Its usefulness (Giulio
Gallarotti, Niall Ferguson, Josef Joffe, Robert Kagan, Ken Waltz, Mearsheimer
vs Nye, Katzenstein, Janice Bially Mattern, Jacques Hymans, Alexander Vuving,
Jan Mellisen)
·
How soft power and
hard power interact (Giulio Gallarotti, Joseph Nye)
·
Whether soft power can
be coercive or manipulative, (Janice BIally Mattern, Katzenstein, Duvall
& Barnet vs Nye, Vuving)
·
Whether soft balancing
is occurring (Wohlforth & Brooks vs Walt et al.)
·
Soft power and
normative power in Europe (Ian Manners, A Ciambra, Thomas Diez, A Hyde Pryce,
Richard Whitman)
·
How civil resistance (i.e., non-violent forms of resistance)
can often involve certain uses of soft power, but remains a distinct concept
(Adam Roberts, Timothy Garton Ash)
One
study finds that a state's soft power has a measurable effect on its exports.
Countries that are admired for their positive global influence export more,
holding other things constant.[31]
After Pope John Paul II visited Poland in 1979, some political commentators said his visit
influenced events against Poland's Communist regime, the Soviet Union, and ultimately Communism.[18]
"The Pope won that struggle by transcending politics. His
was what Joseph Nye calls "soft power" – the power of attraction and
repulsion. He began with an enormous advantage, and exploited it to the utmost:
He headed the one institution that stood for the polar opposite of the Communist
way of life that the Polish people hated. He was a Pole, but beyond the
regime’s reach. By identifying with him, Poles would have the chance to cleanse
themselves of the compromises they had to make to live under the regime. And so
they came to him by the millions. They listened. He told them to be good, not
to compromise themselves, to stick by one another, to be fearless, and that God
is the only source of goodness, the only standard of conduct. "Be not
afraid," he said. Millions shouted in response, "We want God! We want
God! We want God!" The regime cowered. Had the Pope chosen to turn his
soft power into the hard variety, the regime might have been drowned in blood.
Instead, the Pope simply led the Polish people to desert their rulers by
affirming solidarity with one another. The Communists managed to hold on as
despots a decade longer. But as political leaders, they were
finished." [32]
Besides
the Pope's visit, American broadcasting into Soviet-occupied Europe,
particularly Poland, contributed to the rise of the Solidarity movement and to the collapse of the Soviet-backed regimes
there and in the rest of the Warsaw Pact alliance.[19]
The
Soviets competed with the U.S. for influence throughout the Cold War. The Soviets were engaged in a broad campaign to convince the
world of the attractiveness of its Communist system. In 1945, the Soviet Union
was very effective in attracting many in Europe from its resistance to Hitler,
and in colonized areas around the world because of its opposition to European
imperialism.[33] The Soviets also employed a substantially large public diplomacy program that included: promoting their
high culture, broadcasting, disseminating disinformation about the West, and
sponsoring nuclear protests, peace movements, and youth organizations. Despite
all of this, the Soviets' closed system and lack of popular culture impeded the
ability of the Soviet Union to compete with the U.S. in terms of soft power.
The
United States and Europe have consistently been sources of influence and soft
power.[34]European culture consisting of its art, literature,
music, design, fashion, and even food have been global magnets for some time.[33] Europe and the U.S. have promoted human rights and international law throughout the world. Unlike America,
the Europeans love of soccer enhances their soft power globally, whereas the
primary sports of the U.S. such as football and baseball are largely unpopular
on the world stage. In 2012, the European Union was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for over six decades [it has]
contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy and human
rights in Europe."[35][36] The U.S. has the largest number of foreign journalists
based in the country,[37] and is the most popular destination for international
students.[38] American
films, among other
influences, have contributed to the Americanization of other cultures.[39]
Asia
and more recently China have been working to use the potential soft power
assets that are present in the admiration of their ancient cultures, ares,
fashion and cuisine. China is presenting itself as a defender of national
sovereignty,[40] which became an issue after the NATO air campaign to
oust Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and NATO's support of the rebels in Libya.[41] The Chinese are also competing with the United States to
gain influence throughout the South Pacific, however some commentators have
said their recent assertiveness in this region has created an appeal for
nations in this region to align with the United States thus increasing U.S.
soft power in this area.[42]
Soft
power extends beyond the operations of government, to the activities of the
private sector and to society and culture at large.[43] Soft power has gained more influence because it addresses
the underlying dispositions of the people who have increasingly become more
active in their governments.[18] This is true even in authoritarian countries where people
and institutions are increasingly able to shape the debate.[44]
The information age has also led to the rise of soft power
resources for non-state actors. Primarily, through the use of global media, and
to a greater extent the internet, non-state actors have been able to increase
their soft power and put pressure on governments that can ultimately affect
policy outcomes. Instead of front organizations, non-state actors can create
cyber advocacy organizations [45] to recruit members and project their voice on the global
stage.
China's
traditional culture has been a source of attraction, building on which it has
created several hundred Confucius Institutes around the world to teach its language
and culture. The enrollment of foreign students in China has increased from
36,000 a decade ago to at least 240,000 in 2010.[46]China's Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank has attracted many western countries to
join.[47]
A
spring 2014 Global Attitudes survey from Pew Research Center states China
receives mostly positive reviews in the sub-Saharan African nations polled,
although South Africans are closely divided (45% favorable, 40% unfavorable).[48] China's increasing soft power can be explained by looking
at China's economic growth and regarding economic engagement with many African
countries. China's expansion of trade and investment on the African continent
and the spread of Chinese-led infrastructure projects gives positive impression
about China towards people in Africa. China's economic engagement in African
countries is considered as much more pragmatic and in consistency with the
priorities of many African countries. Moreover, China's increasing role as a
global superpower seems appealing and this drives a desire to tie African
economies more closely to China's economy.
China
has made a systematic effort to expand and give greater profile to its
soft-power policies in Africa ever since the first Forum on China-Africa
Cooperation in 2000. The commitments of China's soft power ranges from health,
humanitarian assistance to academic, professional and cultural exchange.
China's assistance to Africa, however, is not near the U.S. assistance in
Africa.
Cultural
exchange between China and Africa can be a representative example of how China
has been spreading its soft power. In 2005, the first Confucius Institute was
established in Africa. The institute is funded by the Chinese government and it
provides Chinese language and cultural programming to the public. There are 19
institutes today in Africa and China has planned to spend 20 million renminbi
for education projects in South Africa, including the teaching of Mandarin in
50 local high schools.
Furthermore,
there is an increasing support for cultural visitors programs which gained
momentum in 2004 when the African Cultural Visitors Program was established.
There is a rising number of African entrepreneurs who choose to move to China
and there are also diaspora communities in many Chinese cities that have been
found.[49]
Outside
of Africa, Chinese soft power extends to countries like the Barbados. Barbadian Prime Minister David Thompson expressed admiration for the Chinese economic model and
sought to emulate the way Chinese state controlled banks guided development.[50]
Under
Mr. Xi, China’s soft power has suffered from his crackdown on civil society and
from the nationalistic response to China’s disputes with its neighbours.[51]
France has long exerted a great amount of soft power. The country
and its culture have for centuries been admired in many
parts of the world; so much so that Thomas Jefferson is famously quoted as saying "Every
man has two countries, his own and France."[52] The very term "culture" comes from France.[53]
France
was a focal point of the Age of Enlightenment;[54] its attachment to the ideals of liberty, equality, tolerance and reason was notably embodied in the writing and publishing of
the Encyclopédie.
The French Revolution was one of the most significant events
in European and world history. France has since then been instrumental in
spreading Republican ideals. The Napoleonic Code, which influenced much of the rest of Europe
and beyond, is regarded as one of the most important law document of the modern era.[55]
The French language has for centuries been an important
diplomatic language. For example, French has to be used – on par with English –
for all documents issued by the United
Nations Treaty Series, ensuring that all UN
treaties are equally valid in their English and French versions.[56]
France
has also followed for decades a very active diplomatic and cultural policy.
The Alliance Française, whose aim is to promote the French language
and French culture, was created as early as 1883.[57] In Monocle's 2015 "Soft Power 30" report, France was ranked first
in the "engagement" criteria, which is intended to measure "the
reach of states’ diplomatic network and their commitment to major challenges
like development and the environment." Monocle further
noted that "In terms of influential reach, France is the best networked
state in the world and is member of more multi-lateral organisations than any
other country." Overall, France ranked fourth in that study.[58]
France's laïcité, secularism, policy has inspired some countries over time. For instance,
France was Ataturk's main role model when he reformed his
country to westernise it.[59]
France,
and in particular Paris,[60] has long been considered one of the most romantic places
to be. France was in 2014 the most visited country in the world.[61]
The
annual soft power rankings by Monocle magazine and the
Institute for Government ranks 30 countries which “best attract favor from
other nations through culture, sport, cuisine, design, diplomacy and
beyond.” Monocle magazine said: “Merkel may be painted as a stern taskmaster but it seems she has
a softer side, or the country she leads does.” It said Germany’s rise as a soft
power should not come as a surprise. “The country is traditionally excellent at
pursuing its ideas, values and aims using diplomatic, cultural and economic
tools," it said. “By quietly doing the simple things well it is a country
that has become a global power and the rest of us can feel comfortable with
that.” Germans had been understandably wary about depicting a dominant image
abroad, the magazine added, but it said that the country’s rise should not make
everyone else feel uncomfortable.[62][63][64]
The
famous elements of Italian soft culture are its art, music, fashion, and iconic
food. Italy was the birthplace of opera,[65] and for generations the language of opera was Italian, irrespective of the nationality of the composer. Popular
tastes in drama in Italy have long favored comedy; the improvisational style
known as the Commedia dell'arte began in Italy in the mid-16th century[66]and is still performed today. Before being exported to France,
the famous Ballet dance genre also originated in Italy.
The country boasts several world-famous cities. Rome was the ancient
capital of the Roman Empire and seat of the Pope of the Catholic Church. Florence was the heart of the Renaissance, a period of great achievements in the arts that ended the Dark Ages.[67] Other important cities include Turin, which used to be the
capital of Italy, and is now one of the world's great centers of automobile
engineering. Milan is a fashion capital of the World. Venice, with its intricate canal system, attracts tourists from all
over the world especially during the Venetian Carnival and the Biennale. Italy is home to the greatest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites (51) to date,[68][69] and according to one estimate the country is home to half
the world's great art treasures.[70] The nation has, overall, an estimated 100,000 monuments of
any sort (churches, cathedrals, archaeological sites, houses and statues).[71]
"Cool
Japan" is a concept coined in 2002 as an expression of Japan’s popular culture. The concept has been adopted by the Japanese
government as well as trade bodies seeking to exploit the commercial capital of
the country’s culture industry.[73][74] It has been described as a form of soft power, “the
ability to indirectly influence behavior or interests through cultural or
ideological means.”[75] In a 2002 article in the journal Foreign Policy titled
“Japan’s Gross National Cool”, Douglas McGray wrote of Japan “reinventing
superpower” as its cultural influence expanded internationally despite the
economic and political problems of the “lost decade.” Surveying youth culture
and the role of J-pop, manga, anime, fashion, film, consumer electronics,
architecture, and cuisine, McGray highlighted Japan’s considerable soft power,
posing the question of what message the country might project. He also argued
that Japan’s recession may even have boosted its national cool, due to the
partial discrediting of erstwhile rigid social hierarchies and big-business
career paths.[76][77]
Russia
has been developing its soft power by investing in various public diplomacy
instruments throughout the 2000s[78] but the term was first used in an official document in
2010 as President Medvedev approved an Addendum to the national
Foreign Policy Concept. The term was not defined but it was described as
related to cultural diplomacy.[79] In 2013, the term appeared in a new version of the Foreign
Policy Concept where the soft power was defined as "a comprehensive
toolkit for achieving foreign policy objectives building on civil society
potential, information, cultural and other methods and technologies alternative
to traditional diplomacy."[80] In 2007, Russian President Vladimir Putin was named Time Person of the Year. In 2013, he was named most powerful person
by Forbes magazine.[81]
U.S. President Barack Obama:
"...And of course, around the world, people are being swept up by Korean
culture -- the Korean Wave"[82]
As is clear with the recent rise of Psy's
"Gangnam Style",
the Hallyu-wave and Korean pop music, Korean culture
is making its mark on the world.
—United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon[83]
the Hallyu-wave and Korean pop music, Korean culture
is making its mark on the world.
—United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon[83]
"Hallyu",
also known as the "Korean Wave", is a neologism referring to the increase in the popularity of South
Korean culture since the late 1990s. According to a Washington Post reporter, the increased popularity of
South Korean entertainment has led to higher sales of other goods and services
such as food, clothing, video games, and Korean language classes.[84] Besides increasing the amount of exports, the Korean
Wave is used by the government as a soft power tool to engage with the
masses of young people all over the world,[85]and to reduce anti-Korean sentiment.[86]
In the 21st century, culture is power.
In
2012, the BBC's country rating poll revealed that public opinion of South Korea has been improving every year since the first rating poll
for the country was conducted in 2009. In several countries such as Russia, India, China and France, public opinion of South Korea turned from slightly negative to
generally positive. The report cited culture and tradition as among the most
important factors contributing to positive perceptions of South Korea.[88] This comes alongside a rapid growth in the total value of
cultural exports which rose to US$4.2 billion in 2011.[89]
First
driven by the spread of Korean dramas televised across East, South and Southeast Asia during its initial stages, the Korean
Wave evolved from a regional development into a global phenomenon due
to the proliferation of Korean pop (K-pop) music videos
on YouTube.[90]Currently, the spread of the Korean Wave to
other regions of the world is most visibly seen among teenagers and young
adults in Latin America, the Middle East, North Africa, and immigrantenclaves of the Western world.[91]
Since
the period of Pax Britannica the United Kingdom has held significant soft power.[92] Today it remains one of the most influential countries in
the world,[93] coming first in the 2015 Portland Group, Comres, Facebook report,[94] and the Monocle survey of global soft
power in 2012.[37][95]
The
UK has strong diplomatic relations with countries around the world, particularly countries in
the Commonwealth of
Nations and many others
in Europe, Asia, the Middle-east, Africa and the United States.[96] Diplomatic missions between Commonwealth countries are
known as High Commissions rather than Embassies to indicate the closeness of the relationship.[97] The UK exerts influence on countries within the European Union,[98] and has one of the largest global networks of diplomatic missions.[37] Many countries around the world use the British form
of democracy and government known as the Westminster system.[99]
The
influence of British culture and sports are widespread, particularly notable
during the British Invasion, Cool Britannia, and more recently the Diamond Jubilee and 2012 Summer Olympics.[100]The opening and closing ceremonies
celebrated British culture and achievements with the world.[101] London is the only city to have hosted the
modern Olympics three times.[102] British media is broadcast internationally, notably
the BBC World Service, BBC World News and The Economist magazine. British film and literature have international appeal, and British theatre helps make London one of the most
visited cities in the world.[103] Schools and universities in Britain are popular destinations for
students of other nations.[104]
Alongside
the English language, English contract law is the most important and most used
contract law in international business.[105] London is the headquarters for four of the world's six
largest law firms.[106] The UK and more specifically London is a centre of international finance where foreign participants in financial
markets come to deal with one another.[107] It is headquarters for major international corporations,
many of which choose to be listed on the London Stock Exchange.[108]
"Soft power has been a strong suit for the United States
virtually from its inception – certainly long before the country became a
recognized world power in the twentieth century. American 'exceptionalism' –
the nation’s devotion to freedom, the rule of law, and the practice of
republican government, its openness to immigrants of all races and religions,
its opposition to traditional power politics and imperialism – has had a great
deal to do with the rise of the United States to its currently dominant global
role." [109]
The United States has long had a great deal of soft power.
Examples include Franklin D. Roosevelt's four freedoms in Europe at the end of World War II, young people behind the Iron Curtain listening to radio Free Europe, Chinese students symbolizing their protests
in Tiananmen Square by creating a replica of the Statue of Liberty that they called "Goddess of
Democracy", newly liberated Afghans in 2001 asking for a copy of the Bill
of Rights and young
Iranians today surreptitiously watching banned American videos and satellite
television broadcasts in the privacy of their homes.[17] America's early commitment to religious toleration, for
example, was a powerful element of its overall appeal to potential immigrants;
and American aid in the reconstruction of Europe after World War II was an
advertisement both of the prosperity and the generosity of the people of the
United States.
Studies
of American broadcasting into the Soviet bloc, and testimonials from Czech President Václav Havel, Polish President Lech Wałęsa, and Russian President Boris Yeltsin support that soft power efforts of the
United States and its allies during the Cold War were ultimately successful in
creating the favorable conditions that led to the collapse of the Soviet empire.[110]
Alhurra Logo
"Satellite TV is actively promoting American soft power in
the Arab world in ways that the United States has been incapable of doing. The
launch of the Arabic-language Alhurra satellite channel in early 2004
to provide news and entertainment in ways more beneficial to the U.S., marked
an important turning point in U.S. public diplomacy development. Though it
calls itself the largest Arabic-language news organization in the world, the
Virginia-based Alhurra lacks the cachet and brand recognition of Al Jazeera, but
its balanced presentation of news has earned it a small but significant
viewership. Controversial innovations in radio broadcasting that target young
mass audiences through a mix of light news and mild American popular music
– Radio Sawa in Arabic and Radio Farda in Persian – have captured a substantial market share in their target
regions."[19]
1. Jump
up^ Nye, Joseph (8 May 2012). "China's Soft Power Deficit To catch up,
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superpower by Arab news, by Global Times, by the Washington Post, by The Australian. Italy has been described as a cultural
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crowd was older than I’d expected, and the ambience felt more like a video-game
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Diplomacy, Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare (IWP Press, 2008)
·
Giulio
Gallarotti, Cosmopolitan Power in International Relations: A Synthesis
of Realism, Neoliberalism, and Constructivism, NY: Cambridge University
Press, 2010, how hard and soft power can be combined to optimize national power
·
Giulio
Gallarotti, The Power Curse: Influence and Illusion in World Politics,
Boulder, CO.: Lynne Rienner Press, 2010, an analysis of how the over reliance
on hard power can diminish the influence of nations.
·
Giulio Gallarotti.
"Soft Power: What it is, Why It's Important, and the Conditions Under
Which it Can Be Effectively Used" Journal of Political Power (2011), works.bepress.com.
·
Soft
Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary
Perspectives, ed. Inderjeet Parmar
and Michael Cox, Routledge, 2010.
·
Steven Lukes,
"Power and the battle for hearts and minds: on the bluntness of soft
power," in Felix Berenskoetter and M.J. Williams, eds. Power in
World Politics, Routledge, 2007.
·
Janice Bially Mattern,
"Why Soft Power Isn't So Soft," in Berenskoetter and Williams.
·
J.S. Nye, "Notes
for a soft power research agenda," in Berenskoetter and Williams.
·
Young Nam Cho and Jong
Ho Jeong, "China's Soft Power," Asia Survey 48, 3, pp. 453–72.
·
Yashushi Watanabe and
David McConnell, eds, Soft Power Superpowers: Cultural and National Assets of
Japan and the United States, London, M E Sharpe, 2008.
·
Ingrid d'Hooghe,
"Into High Gear: China's Public Diplomacy", The Hague Journal
of Diplomacy, No. 3 (2008), pp. 37–61.
·
Ingrid d'Hooghe,
"The Rise of China's Public Diplomacy", Clingendael Diplomacy Paper
No. 12, The Hague, Clingendael Institute, July 2007, ISBN 978-90-5031-117-5, 36 pp.
·
"Playing soft or
hard cop," The Economist, January 19, 2006.
·
Y. Fan, (2008)
"Soft power: the power of attraction or confusion", Place Branding and
Public Diplomacy, 4:2, available at bura.brunel.ac.uk.
·
Bruce Jentleson,
"Principles: The Coming of a Democratic Century?" from American
Foreign Policy: The Dynamics of Choice in the 21st Century.
·
Jan Melissen,
"Wielding Soft Power," Clingendael Diplomacy Papers, No 2,
Clingendael, Netherlands, 2005.
·
Chicago Council on
Global Affairs, "Soft Power in East Asia" June 2008.
·
Joseph Nye, The
Powers to Lead, NY Oxford University Press, 2008.
·
Joshua Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China's Soft
Power is Transforming the World (Yale University Press, 2007).
Analysis of China's use of soft power to gain influence in the world's
political arena.
·
John McCormick The European Superpower (Palgrave Macmillan,
2006). Argues that the European Union has used soft power effectively to emerge
as an alternative and as a competitor to the heavy reliance of the US on hard
power.
·
Matthew
Fraser, Weapons of
Mass Distraction: Soft Power and American Empire (St. Martin's Press, 2005). Analysis is focused on the pop culture aspect of soft power, such as movies, television, pop music, Disneyland, and American fast-food brands including Coca-Cola and McDonald's.
·
Salvador Santino
Regilme, The Chimera of Europe's Normative Power in East Asia: A Constructivist
Analysis Regilme, Salvador Santino Jr. (March 2011). "The Chimera of Europe's Normative Power
in East Asia: A Constructivist Analysis" (PDF). Central European Journal of
International and Security Studies. 5 (1): 69–90.
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