Truth is what you think it is not By PROF DR Sohail Ansari & Variables 6

 When two people decide to get a divorce, it isn't a sign that they 'don't understand' one another, but a sign that they have, at last, begun to. Helen Rowland

 

Projected truth is antithesis to truth

No matter how obvious the truth; deny it often enough and the masses will regard it as the lie. Truth is not what a journalist makes you think it is, it is what he makes you think it is not. Projected truth is always attractively simple and pure antithesis to truth.

 

 “No matter how big the lie; repeat it often enough and the masses will regard it as the truth.” » John F. Kennedy

 “Man is not what he thinks he is, he is what he hides.”
― André Malraux

“The pure and simple truth is rarely pure and never simple.” » Oscar Wild

 

 

Structure and style

The Qur'an has made remarkable contributions to the structure and style of the Arabic language. It combines within its covers the first documentation of the sentence patterns of Arabic, and it was instrumental in the documentation of Arabic grammar which began in the first Islamic century. From the time of Sibawayh (d. c. 793) up to the present day there is hardly a page in any manual of Arabic grammar which does not contain one or more verses from the Qur'an. Furthermore, the strong interest in Qur'anic studies brought with it an equally strong interest in Arabic linguistic studies.

The style of the Qur'an helped to develop and enrich the Arabic language. As the first book in the Arabic language, it introduced stylistic innovations which greatly influenced trends in subsequent generations. Foremost among such trends is the Qur'an's abundant use of figures of speech in place of simple words.

The Qur'an makes extensive use of illustrations, imagery, and metaphor, thus adding beauty, life, and colour to plain words In fact, the ubiquity of figures of speech in the Qur'an has led Sayyid Qutb to conclude that 'the use of imagery and figures of speech is the Qur'an's preferred style.' The preference for figures of speech over plain words appears to be a general trend that permeates the entire Book. Thus, the Qur'an affirms the impossibility of the disbelievers' entry into paradise:

“Nor will they enter the Garden until a thick rope can pass through the eye of a needle”. (7: 40)

Confirming that the disbelievers' actions will be in vain, the Qur'an conveys this notion in the following way:

“The parable of those who reject their Lord is that their works are as ashes on which the wind blows furiously as on a tempestuous day.” (14: 18)

Another idea, that of those who do charitable acts yet spoil what they have done by gloating and reminding others of such acts is conveyed thus:

“they are in a parable like a hard, barren rock on which is a little soil: on it falls heavy rain which leaves it just a bare stone.” (2: 265)

The opposite case, namely that of those who spend for God's sake rather than in order to boast, is also expressed through imagery:

“as a garden, high and fertile; heavy rain falls on it but makes it yield a double increase of harvest.” (2: 265)

Earlier in the same sura, the same idea is conveyed through a different figure of speech:

“The parable of those who spend their money in the way of God is that of a grain of corn: it groweth seven ears and each ear hath a hundred grains.” (2: 261)

Criticizing those who worship gods other than Allah, the Qur'an likens their actions to that of a spider building a web:

“The parable of those who take protectors other than God is that of the spider building for itself a house; but, truly, the flimsiest of houses is the spider's house.” (29: 41)

Doomsday is one of the frequent themes of the Qur'an. The description of the horrors of that day is also presented through figures of speech:

“for the convulsion of the Hour will be a terrible thing! The day ye shall see it, each mother giving suck shall forget her suckling-babe, and each pregnant female shall deliver her load. Thou shalt see mankind as in a drunken riot, yet not drunk.” (22: 2)

Another very characteristic stylistic device of the Qur'an is that of anthropomorphization. Thus it describes dawn as:

“breathing away the darkness” (78: 10),

“the night as concealing the sun and veiling the day, the wind as fecundating, causing the rain to fall “(15: 22).

The sea is likened to ink which, if used, will not suffice to write the words of God:

“Say: If the ocean were ink wherewith to write out the words of my Lord, sooner would the ocean be exhausted, even if we added another ocean like it.”(18: 109)

Slandering is likened to eating another person’s flesh:

“Nor speak ill of each other behind their backs. Would any of you like to eat the flesh of his dead brother. “(49: 12)

The rhythmic pattern of speech found in Qur’anic recitations is yet another remarkable aspect of the language of the Qur'an. These patterns are a reflection of the special array of words and arrangement of phrases found in the Book. In the view of many scholars such verses combine the characteristics of both poetry and prose.

Unlike some poetry, the verses of the Qur'an do not have one single rhyme, thus there is more room for flexibility and freedom of expression. The Qur'an does, however, reflect certain aspects of poetry, especially with respect to its use of words with identical numbers of syllables. This 'music' is more noticeable in short verses than it is in long ones.

Sayyid Qutb cites sura 53 (al-Najm) as an excellent example of prose rhythm produced by words similar in length and all ending in the same sound, in this case the long. There is another type of internal rhythm which is inherent in the structure of the single sentence. This is seen when the length of words varies within the same sura.

A good example of this is sura 19 (Maryam), which begins with short words and phrases, then changes to longer ones. Furthermore, the rhythms of the various segments are enhanced by the use of two main rhymes throughout the entire sura. These rhymes end either in nun or mim preceded by either ya' or wa'w.

The narrative aspect of Qur'an style remains one of the most creative and innovative of the Holy Book, one which has profoundly influenced and enriched the Arabic language. Whatever narrative style the language had in pre-Islamic times were relatively crude and primitive.

Even though the narrative parts of the Qur'an were clearly put to the service of the main theme of the Book, i.e., religion, the narrative was so highly developed and integrated that it became a work of art in itself. The Qur'an is remarkably innovative with respect to its method of presentation, which involves four different techniques.

One common technique is that if beginning a story with a short summery, followed by the details from beginning to end, as in sura 18 (al-Kahf).

The second technique is that of beginning a story by presenting the conclusion first, then the lesson to be derived from it, and then the story from beginning to end, as in the story of Moses in sura 28 (al-Qasas).

The third technique presents the story directly without introduction, as in that of Mary following the birth of Jesus in sura 19 (Maryam), and the story of King Solomon and the ants in sura 27 (al-Naml).

The fourth, and perhaps most innovative, technique is that of presenting the story through dramatization. This technique gives only a brief introduction signaling the beginning of the scene, followed by a dramatization of the story with a dialogue among the various characters, as in the story of Abraham and Ismail in sura 2.

An important element in the structure of Qur'anic narrative is the varied use of the element of surprise. In some cases the anticlimax is kept from the main players and spectators, and is unfolded for both simultaneously towards the end, as in sura 18 in the story of Moses and the scholar.

Another use of the element of surprise reveals the anticlimax to the audience but conceals it from the characters, who act in total ignorance. The Qur'an commonly uses this technique in situations where satire is intended (satire which is directed at the actors and their behavior) as in the story in sura 68 (al-Qalam). A third technique reveals part of the anticlimax to the audience while keeping part of it concealed from both the audience and the characters, as in the story in sura 27 (al-Naml).

The structure of Qur'anic narrative displays the well-developed elements of an integrated literary work. One of the elements indispensable to dramatized narrative is change of scenery, which the Qur'an utilizes fully.

In the story of Joseph in sura 12, the reader is presented with a succession of scenes, each of which leads to the next, picking up the main thread of the narrative. Joseph's story comprises some twenty-eight scenes, each of which leads to the next in a manner which maintains the organic unity of the entire narrative. All such scenes are presented through dialogues replete with details and ideas. The result of such a well-knit passage is that the reader finds himself drawn to the narrative, moving anxiously from one scene to another.

This effect is achieved through a coherent series of events which sustain his curiosity and interest. In one scene, for example, we find one of Joseph's brothers entering the king's court in Egypt where Joseph is the keeper of the store-house. In this scene, Joseph stipulates to his brothers that they should bring their younger brother to the king's court in order to receive provisions. The next scene presents the brothers deliberating among themselves, which is followed by a scene in which they have returned to face their father, Jacob.

The following scene takes the brothers back to Egypt to confront Joseph. The presentation of the narrative in dramatic form involving a succession of scenes brings home effortlessly the main theme and the lessons to be derived from the whole narrative. The use of dialogue makes the scenes more vivid and closer to life. This is an art in which the Qur'an excels, and an art in which it is remarkably innovative. It is clearly a form of literary composition which the Qur'an, the first book in Arabic, introduced to the language.

The portrayal of personalities is a very significant element of the narrative; here, again, the Qur'an sets a precedent. The depiction of personalities in the various narratives manages to convey to the reader the precise dimensions and traits of such figures. This is done through the words and actions of the personalities portrayed.

In the story of Moses, for example, the reader is readily able to discern, through Moses' actions, the type of aggressive yet emotionally sensitive person he was meant to portray. Conversely, in the story of Abraham, the Qur'anic verses carefully depict a calm, peaceful, and patient personality. This careful and accurate delineation of personality is effected largely through dialogue which skillfully brings out the traits of such personalities. The dialogue, in turn, is rendered even more effective by a very careful choice of words.

Endogenous

Having an internal cause or origin.

"The expected rate of infection is endogenous to the system"

PSYCHIATRY

(Of a disease or symptom) not attributable to any external or environmental factor.

"Endogenous depression"

 

Having an external cause or origin.

"Technological changes exogenous to the oil industry"

(Of a disease or symptom) attributable to an agent or organism outside the body.

"Exogenous depression"

Dependent variable generated within a model and, therefore, a variable whose value is changed (determined) by one of the functional relationships in that model.

For example,

 Consumption expenditure and income is considered endogenous to a model of income determination.

Independent variable that affects a model without being affected by it, and whose qualitative characteristics and method of generation are not specified by the model builder.

 An exogenous variable is used for setting arbitrary external conditions, and not in achieving a more realistic model behavior.

 For example, the level of government expenditure is exogenous to the theory of income determination.

Endogenous Variable and Exogenous Variable: Definition and Classifying

 

What are Endogenous Variables?

Endogenous variables are used in econometrics and sometimes in linear regression. They are similar to (but not exactly the same as) dependent variables. Endogenous variables have values that are determined by other variables in the system (these “other” variables are called exogenous variables). According to Daniel Little, University of Michigan-Dearborn, an endogenous variable is defined in the following way:

A variable xj is said to be endogenous within the causal model M if its value is determined or influenced by one or more of the independent variables X (excluding itself).

Endogenous Variable Example

Let’s suppose a manufacturing plant produces a certain amount of white sugar. The amount of product (white sugar) is the endogenous variable and is dependent on any number of other variables which may include weather, pests, price of fuel etc. As the amount of sugar is entirely dependent on the other factors in the system, it’s said to be purely endogenous. However, in real life purely endogenous variables are a rarity; it’s more likely that endogenous variables are only partially determined by exogenous factors. For example, sugar production is affected by pests, and pests are affected by weather. Therefore, pests in this particular system are partially endogenous and partially exogenous.

Classifying Variables within a System

Unlike independent variables and dependent variables in an experiment, identifying which variables are exogenous, and which are endogenous variables, can pose a challenge. Using the sugar production example again, something might cause the amount of sugar produced to rise. For example, a new conveyor belt might result in an increase in sugar output. In order to decide if this new variable is exogenous, you would have to decide if the increase in output would cause the new variables to change. A variable like “weather” is definitely exogenous as a rise in output would have no effect on the weather. But what about “Price”? The price of sugar certainly isn’t affected by one small manufacturing plant’s output, but what if this was a major manufacturing plant that suddenly increased its production and saturated the market? Price in this case would be partially an endogenous variable and partially an exogenous one.

In Simultaneous Equations

An endogenous variable is one that is explained by a model. So if you have a set of simultaneous equations, those equations (the simultaneous equation model) should explain the behavior of any endogenous variable. On the other hand, if the model doesn’t explain the behavior of certain variable, then those variables are exogenous. The following example (from this Yale University post) explains the difference with an example. Equations 1, 2, and 3 are a simple multiplier model with several variables:

1. A composition function: C_t = a₁ + a₂Y_t + e_t

2. An investment function: I_t = b₁ + b₂r_t + u_t

3. Income identity function: Y_t = C_t + I_t + G_t

Where “t” is time and the variables are:

·         Consumption (C_t)

·         Investment (I_t)

·         Total income/GDP (Y_t)

·         Government Spending (G_t)

·         Interest Rate (R_t)

C_t, I_t, and Y_t are endogenous as they are explained by the model. r_t and G_t are exogenous as they are not explained.

Exogenous Variables

An exogenous variable is a variable that is not affected by other variables in the system. For example, take a simple causal system like farming. Variables like weather, farmer skill, pests, and availability of seed are all exogenous to crop production. Exogenous comes from the Greek Exo, meaning “outside” and gignomai, meaning “to produce.” In contrast, an endogenous variable is one that is influenced by other factors in the system. In this example, flower growth is affected by sunlight and is therefore endogenous.


Exogenous variables…

·         are fixed when they enter the model.

·         are taken as a “given” in the model.

·         influence endogenous variables in the model.

·         are not determined by the model.

·         are not explained by the model.

The term “Exogenous variable” is almost exclusively used in econometrics. However, it is sometimes used in linear regression to describe the independent variable x in the model. In other words, an exogenous variable is one that isn’t affected by any other variables in the model (although it could be affected by factors outside of the linear regression model being studied).

double-blind

adjective

1.     Denoting a test or trial, especially of a drug, in which any information which may influence the behaviour of the tester or the subject is withheld until after the test.

"a 12-week double-blind trial"

 

Exogenous Variables in Experiments

If your data comes from a double blind, controlled experiment, the independent variables are exogenous. In this type of study, the only thing that affects the independent variables is you, the researcher–and you are outside the system. In other studies, the independent variables may be exogenous, or they may be endogenous. If they are endogenous, it means that some other variables within the system (perhaps another independent variable, or a confounding variable) are affecting the results. This can have negative consequences on your results, which is why it’s important to have controlled experiments whenever possible.

Observed vs. Latent Variables

The opposite of an observed variable is a latent variable, also referred to as a factor or construct. A latent variable is hidden, and therefore can’t be observed.

An important difference between the two types of variables is that an observed variable usually has a measurement error associated with it, while a latent variable does not.

 

Examples of Observed Variables

Let’s say you were analyzing results from a major depression inventory.

 Feelings of sadness, lack of interest in daily activities and lack of self-confidence are all measured by the inventory and are therefore observed variables. Other examples:

·         Allen’s Affective Commitment Scale,

·         Gender,

·         Grade Point Averages,

·         IQ Test scores,

·         Minnesota Job Satisfaction Scale,

Related Variables

·         Manifest variable: an observed variable that indicates the presence of a latent variable.

Examples of latent variables from the field of economics include quality of life, business confidence, morale, happiness and conservatism: these are all variables which cannot be measured directly.