CRITICAL THINKING FOR MBA AND ENG DEPT

There is a dynamic relationship that exists in Islam between faith and reflective thought.  And has not the Qur'an said, "(Here is), a Book which We have sent down unto thee, full of blessings, that they may meditate on its Signs, and that men of understanding may receive admonition." (Surah, Al-Sad, 38: 29). In fact, "verily in that are Signs for those who reflect (Surah, Al-Rum, 30: 21) is a constant theme throughout the Qur'an, which, among other things, underscores the point that meanings of the sign of Allah cannot be read just off the face of the signs but require thinking and reflection.

In Islam there is no such thing as knowledge for the sake of knowledge. Knowledge has no value and virtue in and by itself. Its virtue lies in bringing human kind closer to Allah.  The view that knowledge is the path that leads to Allah highlights two things about Islam.  Firstly that knowledge in Islam is important for a Muslim's spiritual growth and development.  And, secondly, since knowledge is acquired through the active process of going beyond what one already knows, critical thinking is essential for a Muslim to grow intellectually and spiritually.  It further suggests, that intellectual growth without spiritual development is aimless wandering, and spiritual development without the intellectual component is meaningless.

In the Western societies critical thinking is required to lead a successful life based on pragmatic and utilitarian grounds. Critical thinking in its secular mode is entirely a this worldly affair, undertaken purely to bring about changes in the world for the purpose of this life. In Islam, to engage in critical thought is a moral commitment and to be judged on it's moral worth independent of its success or failures in this world.  Allah (SWT) requires us to act morally; the success or failure of such actions is entirely in His hands.

Islamic Critical Thinking
In Islam "enlightened thinkers” are known as Raushanfekran.
"Afalaa utadabbaroon al-Quran? (4:82)" Do they not do tadabbur in the Quran? So says Allah in the Quran. Tadabbur means highly concentrated goal-oriented critical thinking like the way scientists do when challenged to find something new or when they embark upon solving a difficult problem.
Qur'anic view of creative reflection is called al-Basira. In Islam Ijtihad or independent thinking is used as a principle of creative and critical thinking; rationality and scientific rationality in a secular perspective.

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.

 

WRITING PROMPTS TO ENCOURAGE CRITICAL THINKING

Critical thinking matters, especially when it comes to defending convictions and upholding the truth. Here’s what it means to think critically, plus 17 writing prompts to encourage critical thinking.

You know what you believe, but do you know why you believe it?

What about people who disagree with you? Do you know why they say you’re wrong?

Do you stick to what you’ve always known because you’ve always known it?

Here’s a tip.

Don’t.

Convictions matter and truth exists. But you can neither defend your convictions nor uphold the truth if you don’t know why they exist in the first place. Just as babies must learn to move and communicate independently, so we must learn to think and discern in a rational and critical way. How else will we be able to engage in fruitful discourse or make strides in restoring our broken world?

Memes won’t do it. Sound bites won’t do it. Critical thinking will.

Meme an element of a culture or system of behaviour passed from one individual to another by imitation or other non-genetic means.

DEFINING CRITICAL THINKING

Last year, my husband came home from work with a little blue pamphlet called “The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts and Tools”. Authored by Drs. Richard Paul and Linda Elder, the booklet provides an overview of the skills necessary for critical thought and the steps required to attain  higher level thinking.

According to Paul and Elder, most of our thinking is egocentric and sociocentric. We approach issues from our own frame of reference, making choices and assumptions based on what is logical and beneficial to us. Critical thinking requires that we consider the bigger picture: what are the broader implications of this idea? What is the reasoning behind this opposing view?

A set of criteria or stated values in relation to which measurements or judgements can be made.

a set of basic assumptions or standards that determines and sanctions behaviour

"The observer interprets what he sees in terms of his own cultural frame of reference"

thinking only of oneself, without regard for the feelings or desires of others; self-centred.

"egocentric loners with an overinflated sense of self-worth"

Paul and Elder identify critical thinking as “the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it.” I would go one step further: it is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to applying it in our studies, our conversations, and our daily interactions. It’s a skill once taught with relish and embraced by the world’s greatest thinkers.

Now we’re lucky if high school graduates can identify who won the Civil War.

THE ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT

Let’s go back to the questions I asked at the beginning of this post:

Do you know why you believe what you believe?

Do you know why people disagree with you?

To that second question, I’m going to add one thing:

Do you know why people disagree with you, other than the fact they’re misguided? Dumb? Worse?

I know. It rankles a bit. But it’s true – we tend to look at “the other side” as inferior and uneducated. I’ve experienced it firsthand:

I’m a traditional, conservative Catholic. Plenty of people have ideas about what that means until they actually get to know me.

This is why true critical thinking is so very important. Modern society is fractured. We label and vilify instead of reaching out. We take headlines at their word and live in self-fulfilling social media echo chambers. If we’re going to change the way we behave, we need to change the way we think.  To that end, I’d like to draw attention to Paul and Edler’s Elements of Thought.  They identify issues we often ignore and help bring our attention back to more fruitful, critical thought:

• Problem: what is the problem at issue?
• Purpose: what are the goals and objectives?
• Information: what data, facts, reasons, observations, experiences, or evidence do we have?
• Interpretation and Inference: what conclusions can we make? What solutions do we have?
• Concepts: what do we know about certain theories? Definitions? Principles? Models?
• Assumptions: what are we presupposing? Taking for granted?
• Implications: what are the consequences?
• Point of View: what are the varying frames of reference? Perspectives?

The social media “echo chamber” is real

Active social media users are self-segregated and polarized in news consumption.

·         By making so much information so accessible, social media has drastically changed the way we consume information and form opinions in the modern era. The danger, however, is that social media creates an “echo chamber” that filters the information people receive so that it largely supports their existing opinions.

·         A recent study published in PNAS examines this phenomenon and finds that social-media users show marked focus in the types of news that interests them. These social-media participants tend to develop strong and well-defined communities around the news outlets they support, and they tend to make connections with like-minded people regardless of the geographic distance between them.

 WRITING PROMPTS FOR APPLYING CRITICAL THOUGHT

Learning to think critically requires that we learn to ask good questions. Here are 17 writing prompts for encouraging critical thinking, based on Paul and Edler’s Elements of Thought.

Problem:

What is the inherent problem in _________________?

Why is ________________ an issue for _________________?

Purpose:

What are the goals of those who support ____________________? How are these goals rational? Irrational?

Identify the objective of _______________ in ___________________. How are their motives selfless? Selfish?

Information:

List ___________ things you’ve noticed about ______________. What opinions have these observations fostered?

Discuss your experience with ________________. How has this impacted your choices?

Interpretation and Inference:

Consider the decision made in _______________ (you can use a SCOTUS decision, a historical event, etc.). How must the decision makers have felt?

Identify the problem inherent in ________________. What solution can you offer? Why?

Concepts:

Apply the principles of ______________ to ________________.  What happens as a result?

Replace your local/state/national laws with those of Ancient _______________. How would life be different?

How does ______________ meet the definition of ________________?

Assumptions:

What assumptions are made about ________________? Why?

What assumptions do you make about ________________? Why?

How can you counter those assumptions?

Implications and Consequences:

What would happen if _________________?

How would the world be different if ________________ had never occurred/had occurred?

Point of View:

Consider those in favor of _____________. What are the material reasons they support this cause? What are the objective pros and cons of this support?

These are wonderful! I love how your questions help to guide students to think for themselves. We’ve learned a lot about apologetics from Summit Ministries materials and it has been excellent for all of us. It’s so important to know not only what we believe, but why. And why we can trust that.

How to Improve Critical Thinking Skills

Three Methods:    Honing Your Questioning Skills.

Adjusting Your Perspective

Putting It All Together

Critical Thinking is the art of using reason to analyze ideas and dig deeper to get to our true potential. Critical thinking isn't about thinking more or thinking harder; it's about thinking better. Honing your critical thinking skills can open up a lifetime of intellectual curiosity. But the journey isn't all rosy. Critical thinking requires a lot of discipline. Staying on track takes a combination of steady growth, motivation, and the ability to take an honest look at yourself, even in the face of some uncomfortable facts.

Honing Your Questioning Skills

Question your assumptions. We make a lot of assumptions about almost everything. It's how our brain processes certain pieces of information, and how we get along in everyday life. You could say they are the foundation of our critical framework. But what if those assumptions turned out to be wrong, or at least not entirely truthful? Then the whole foundation needs to be re-built, from the bottom up.

·         What does it mean to question assumptions? Einstein questioned the assumption that Newtonian laws of motion could accurately describe the world.^[1] He developed an entirely new framework for looking at the world by redescribing what he thought had happened, starting from scratch.

·         We can question assumptions in a similar way. Why do we feel the need to eat in the morning, even when we're not hungry? Why do we assume that we'll fail when we haven't even tried?

·         What other assumptions are we taking for granted that might crumble upon further examination?

2 Don't take information on authority until you've investigated it yourself. 

Like assumptions, taking information on authority can be useful. Instead of double-checking everything anyone says, we tend to label information as either coming from a trustworthy or not trustworthy source. This keeps us from double-checking every piece of information that comes our way, saving time and energy. But it also keeps us from getting to the bottom of things we perceive as coming from a trustworthy source, even when they don't. Just because it was published in a magazine or broadcast over TV doesn't mean it's necessarily true.

·         Get in the habit of using your instinct to investigate questionable pieces of information. If your gut isn't satisfied with an explanation, ask the person to elaborate. If you don't question a fact, read about it or test it yourself. Soon enough, you'll build up a pretty good sense of what deserves more research and what you've determined to be true in your own judgment.

3 Question things. You've already read about questioning assumptions and questioning authority figures. Now you're about to be told to question...everything? Asking questions is perhaps the quintessential act of critical thinking. If you don't know what questions to ask, or don't ask the questions in the first place, you may as well not get the answer. Finding the answer, and finding it elegantly, is what critical thinking is all about.

·         How does ball lightning work?

·         How do fish fall from the sky in the middle of Australia?

·         How can we take meaningful steps to fight global poverty?

·         How do we dismantle production of nuclear weapons worldwide?

Adjusting Your Perspective

Understand your own biases. Human judgement can be subjective, frail, and spiteful. One recent study found that parents who were given corrected information about the safety of vaccines were less likely to have their children vaccinated. Why? The hypothesis is that parents given this information accept that the information is true, but push back people it damages their self-esteem — something that is very important to most people. Understanding what your biases are and where they may affect how you deal with information.

Adjusting Your Perspective

Think several moves ahead. Don't just think one or two steps ahead. Think several. Imagine you're a chess grandmaster who's dueling with someone with the capacity to think dozens of moves ahead, with hundreds of permutations. You have to match wits with him. Try to imagine the possible futures the problem you're working on may take on.

·         Jeff Bezos, CEO of Amazon.com, famously understood the benefits of thinking several steps ahead. He tired Wired Magazine in 2011: "If everything you do needs to work on a three-year time horizon, then you’re competing against a lot of people. But if you’re willing to invest on a seven-year time horizon, you’re now competing against a fraction of those people, because very few companies are willing to do that."  When the Kindle first hit stores in 2007 it was more than three years in development, at a time when e-readers were on nobody's radar.

Read great books. Nothing beats the transformation of a great book. Whether it's Moby Dick or Philip K. Dick, great writing has the power to frame debate (literature), enlighten (nonfiction), or unleash emotion (poetry). And reading isn't only for bookworms. Elon Musk, the tech giant, said he mastered rocket science by pretty much "reading and asking questions.

Put yourself in other peoples' shoes. 

Empathy can also help you develop your critical thinking skills. Whether it's improving your negotiation tactics or understanding literature better, putting yourself in the shoes of others will help you imagine their motivations, aspirations, and turmoils. You can use this information to get leverage, be persuasive, or just plain be a better person. Empathy doesn't need to be heartless.

Set aside at least 30 minutes a day to improve your brain function. 

Carve out 30 minutes in your busy day to make your brain more sleek and powerful. There are dozens of ways that you can do this. Here are just a few ideas:

·         Solve a problem a day. Spend a little bit of time figuring out a problem and then try to solve it.^[7] The problem could be a theoretical or a personal one.

·         Find the time to exercise consistently. 30 minutes of aerobic exercise — as little as a walk around the neighborhood — can help improve brain function.^[8]

·         Eat the right kinds of foods. Avocados, blueberries, wild salmon, nuts and seeds, as well as brown rice play an instrumental role in keeping your brain healthy.

·          

Understand all your options. 

When you want to use your critical thinking skills to act — because armchair philosophy can get old after too long — it helps to know what your options are. Lay them all out there, and then weigh the options. We often pigeonhole ourselves into believing that we're stuck with only one option, when other options

Surround yourself with people smarter than you. 

You want to be the big fish in the little pond, because it makes your ego feel good. Well, throw away your ego. If you really want to learn, get better at something, and develop critical thinking skills, hobnob with people smarter than yourself. Not only can you bet that the smart people themselves rub shoulders with people smarter than they are, you can also bet that some of that intelligence is going to permeate your perspective.

Fail until you succeed. 

Be fearless in the face of failure. Failure is just another way of figuring out what doesn't work. Use failure to your advantage by learning from your lessons. The popular myth out there is that successful people never fail, when the truth is that successful people fail until they succeed, at which point their success is the only thing that's visible.

Tips

·         Don't be absolute, yet don't be timid in your criticism: Try to avoid absolutes like "never", and use them only when you're completely sure. However, at the same time, be assertive in your criticism. Think how much less motivating this saying would be: "Slow and steady, in certain cases, wins the race."

·         Be diplomatic. Your aim is not the person himself, but the proposal he puts forward.

·         Ask for other people's opinions. They most likely will offer a new perspective which could change your approach. Consider people both from different age groups and different occupations.

·         Practice critiquing, as you'll get better at it. Take notice if others critique your critique.

·         Read other people's critiques in newspapers and books, and learn from their mistakes and strengths to improve your own style.

·         Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning, that is, to know when a discussion is conducted from the particular to the general, or from the general to the particular.

·         Perform a hypothetical-deductive reasoning. That is, given a particular situation, apply the relevant knowledge of the principles and constraints, and display, in the abstract, the plausible consequences that might result from the different variations that you can imagine imposed on the system.

·         Use libraries and the Internet, to find out information on the topic you're critiquing. An uninformed critique is sometimes worse than one merely executed badly.

·         You can critique something much, much better if it's within your field of expertise. For example, who better than a painter to critique a painting? Or who better than a writer to properly analyze another writer's works?

Warnings

·         Or utilize the 'sandwich method': compliment, suggestion, compliment. Criticism is received better, using this approach. Also, use the person's name, smile (genuinely), and look them in the eye

·         Give criticism in a non-offensive way, as people can get defensive if something they pride themselves on gets attacked. Therefore do not antagonize a hard-core abortion supporter by giving a heated anti-abortion speech. It will only make him go on an offensive to defend his beliefs, totally ignore your arguments, and strengthen his resolve to support abortion. Prefacing criticism with praise usually works wel

The Sandwich Method (or Sandwich Technique or Hamburger Method) is so named because the pieces of bread represent positive feedback/compliments while the meat of the sandwich (or innards if you’re vegetarian) represents constructive criticism. This method of sandwiching the constructive criticism between two compliments is an effective way to help improve/correct behavior. The Sandwich Method 1) Slice of Bread 1: Start off with positive feedback (authentic praise of something they did recently)

Examples:

 “By the way, John, I have to hand it to you on that deal you closed yesterday…that goes a long way towards helping us reach our goal.”

 “Anne, I really appreciate you chipping in for Nicole this week while she was out of the office — that type of teamwork exemplifies the values I’m trying to instill at our company.”

2) The “Meat of the Matter”: Provide your constructive criticism Be brief (yet clear and thorough) in your delivery of the meat of the matter — the criticism you want to share. Ideally you are giving them constructive criticism on just one thing (at most two things)…I find criticism of 3 or more items is too much for a person to handle at one time. Additionally, try to give them the criticism in the context of how it can help THEM reach their goals.

Examples: “Jon, you’re so good at what you do that it’s hard to ever find suggestions on how you can improve. That said, I know you really want that promotion to Director of Sales. One skill you’re going to need in that position is analytics, and your weekly reports are currently pretty light on analytics. For you to earn that Director of Marketing spot, I recommend that you gain some mastery over analytics.”

“Anne, I know this is tough for you to hear, but you are perceived by some on the team as cocky. And I know that you mentioned that you wanted a transfer to Customer Service — well, we certainly don’t want them hearing that you have a reputation for cockiness. I recommend that you and I work together on making sure you’re not perceived as cocky.”

 3) The 2nd Slice of Bread: End on a positive note Ideas on how to end with positivity include  You can simply reiterate the initial positive feedback/compliment you had given them.·  You can speak in general terms about how much progress they are making·  You can compliment them on their receptiveness to receiving constructive criticism.· Examples: “Jon, that deal you closed was really important and I’m thrilled with the fact that you and I can have an open conversation about working harder on analytics.” “Jon, I really admire your enthusiasm about developing yourself. You were already making headway and this analytics thing can be icing on the cake. I think it’s a huge benefit in you progressing towards the Director of Sales position you covet.” “Anne, you’re really on the right track here. This cockiness thing is just a bump in the road and I’m looking forward to working on it with you.” It should go without saying that all of your criticism (positive or negative) should be authentic and well thought out. That’s the sandwich method…good luck with it!

Critical Thinking Definition, Skills, and Examples

Critical thinking is one of the most sought after qualities that employer seek in job candidates. Employers list this skill as a job qualification in a broad range of job postings including both professional and non-professional positions. Regardless of the job for which you're applying, critical thinking skills will be an in-demand asset.

Read below for a detailed definition of critical thinking, including examples of ways people use critical thinking, and a list of critical thinking skills.

Then read for tips on how to demonstrate your own critical thinking skills during your job search.

What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking involves the evaluation of sources such as data, facts, observable phenomenon, and research findings. Good critical thinkers can draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information and discriminate between useful and less useful details for solving a problem or making a decision.  

Critical thinkers can present coherent reasons for adopting a position and debunk faulty reasoning regarding a proposal or assertion.  

Examples of Critical Thinking at Work

• A triage nurse would use critical thinking skills to analyze the cases at hand and decide the order in which the patients should be treated.  
• A plumber would use critical thinking skills to evaluate which materials would best suit a particular job. 
• An attorney would review the evidence and use critical thinking to help devise a strategy to win a case or to decide whether to settle out of court.  

• A job seeker would use critical thinking to analyze a vacancy and decide whether to apply for a job. Then they would evaluate which of their assets as a candidate should be emphasized in an interview for that job. 

List of Critical Thinking Skills

Below is a list of specific skills related to critical thinking.

Each skill includes a definition.

• Analysis – Analysis refers to the ability to examine something, and then be able to understand what it means, or what it represents.
• Clarification – Clarification is the ability to not only restate information, but to state it in a way that is easy to understand.
• Evaluation – Evaluative skills are those related to assessing or judging the validity of an idea.
• Explanation – Explanation is similar to clarification, and refers to the ability to clearly state information, and even add one's own perspective to that information.
• Inference – This relates to the ability to draw conclusions based on the information that one is given (which might be limited).
• Interpretation – Interpretation is the understanding of information. Often, it refers to communicating the meaning of information in a format that is clear for a particular audience.
• Judgment – Like evaluation, judgment is the assessment of an idea or a piece of information.
• Objectivity – Being objective means that you evaluate an idea fairly, without bias.
• Problem Solving – Problem solving is another important skill that involves analyzing a problem, generating a solution, and implementing and then assessing that plan.

• Reasoning – Reasoning refers to thinking logically about a question or problem.

How to Demonstrate Your Critical Thinking Skills

If critical thinking is a key phrase in the job listings you are applying for, you want to emphasize your critical thinking skills throughout your job search. Include this phrase in your resumes, cover letters, and interviews.

Think back to previous roles you have held, from past jobs to volunteer positions. Think about times when you had to analyze or evaluate materials to solve a problem. You can mention one of these examples in detail in your cover letter. You might also include bullet points in your resume that highlight your critical thinking experiences for different jobs.

In interviews, be prepared to provide specific examples of times that you demonstrated critical thinking skills.

Be ready to mention a particular problem or challenge at work, and explain how you applied critical thinking to solve the issue.

Some interviewers will even give you a hypothetical scenario or problem, and ask you to use critical thinking skills to solve it. In this case, explain your thought process thoroughly to the interviewer. He or she is typically more focused on how you arrive at your answer rather than the answer itself. The interviewer wants to see you use analysis and evaluation (key parts of critical thinking).

Using Reading Prompts to Encourage Critical Thinking

By: Maryellen Weimer, PhD

“Students can critically read in a variety of ways:

• When they raise vital questions and problems from the text,
• When they gather and assess relevant information and then offer plausible interpretations of that information,
• When they test their interpretations against previous knowledge or experience …,
• When they examine their assumptions and the implications of those assumptions, and
• When they use what they have read to communicate effectively with others or to develop potential solutions to complex problems.” (p. 127)

And don’t we all wish our students read this way! Unfortunately most of them don’t, and the challenge is finding those strategies and approaches that help them develop these sophisticated reading skills. Terry Tomasek, who crafted this description of critical reading, proposes one of those kinds of strategies.

She uses reading prompts. “The purpose of these reading/writing prompts is to facilitate personal connection between the undergraduate student and the assigned text. The prompts are simply questions used to orient students with a critical reading stance and to guide their thinking as they read.” (p. 128) Her goal in using the prompts is to help students identify the big ideas rather than just “mine” the text for facts and details. She’s not anti facts and details, but she thinks that’s mostly what students read for and the big ideas are what prompt the reflection and analysis typical of those who read deeply and think critically.

Tomasek develops prompts designed to promote a range of critical-thinking responses. The categorization she has developed is neither linear nor hierarchical, meaning the prompts can and should be used in different orders. Here are her six categories and some of the sample prompts contained in the article.


Identification of problem or issue—This “lens” is used to create a “need to know” viewpoint for readers. (pp. 129-130)

• What problem is the author identifying? Who does the problem relate to?
• For whom is this topic important and why?

Making connections—These prompts helps students think critically about course content, what they are reading, and their own knowledge. The goal is to get students to integrate their experiences with what they are reading.

• How is what I am reading different from what I already know? Why might this difference exist?
• What new ideas are here for me to consider? Why am I willing or not willing to consider them?

Interpretation of evidence—These prompts are best used when students have been assigned a case study, have viewed a video clip, or are reviewing each other’s work.

• What inferences can I make from the evidence given in the reading sample?
• What relevant evidence or examples does the author give to support his or her justification?

Challenging assumptions—The goal of these prompts is to encourage students to identify and critique assumptions.

• What kind of assumptions is the author making? Do I share these assumptions?
• What information builds my confidence in the author’s expertise?
• If the opportunity arose, what questions would I pose to the author?

Making application—Here students are challenged to use what they have learned.

• What advice could I add to this reading selection? On what basis do I give this advice?
• Looking toward where I want to be in two years, what suggestions from the reading make the most sense to me?
• Taking a different point of view—Students develop critical perspectives when they are encouraged to consider diverse ideas.
• What would I point out as important about this topic to others who either question or disagree with my point of view?

As for the mechanics, Tomasek assigns one reading prompt at the time the reading assignment is made. Students respond in one or two paragraphs prior to the next class. They are asked to share their responses to the prompts in a variety of ways. They might post them on a Blackboard discussion space and then respond to the comments posted by other classmates. This electronic exchange takes place before class.

Tomasek may use material from these exchanges when she discusses the reading in class. Other times students email their responses to other students, who respond by asking clarifying questions. This kind of exchange then happens face-to-face at the beginning of class. Or students may simply write out their responses to the prompt and email them to the instructor, who uses them in a variety of ways as the content is presented and discussed in class.

Tomasek instructs students not to worry about grammar, punctuation, or paragraph structure. What students are being asked to prepare is not a writing assignment, but a response to an attempt to help them uncover the big ideas and see how they relate and can be applied. When students submit their responses, the feedback provided is limited and the papers are not graded. However, Tomasek does keep track of students’ responses, seeing that they are doing the reading and responding thoughtfully.

“This is one way to facilitate a richer learning experience for students outside the classroom. The list of reading/writing prompts offered here is by no means exhaustive; in fact, they should only be used as [a] starting point to broaden the critical reading skills of other individual instructors’ undergraduate students.” (p. 132)

Reference: Tomasek, T. (2009). Critical reading: Using reading prompts to promote active engagement with text. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. 21 (1), 127-132.