Disquisition of Faisal Devji

The critics of Islam (fourth part) for the department of English and Media studies. By Prof DR Sohail Ansari

 Dead line: 5thMay

Objectives: Making students the critical consumer of information.

Initiating students into the art of academic writing.

This work is the fourth of the series that analyzes the assertions of the detractors of Islam and Holy Prophet (P.B.H.U).

اِن تُبْدُوا شَيْئاً أَوْ تُخْفُوهُ فَإِنَّ اللَّهَ كَانَ بِكُلّ‌ِ شَيْءٍ عَلِيماً

“Whether you reveal anything or conceal it, verily Allah has full knowledge of all things.”

Allah is aware of not only our deeds but also of everything, and His awareness is also equal upon what is hidden and what is manifest.

Disquisition of Faisal Devji

‘Faisal Devji’s elegantly argued treatise, which explores the idea of Pakistan as an expression of Zionism, an ideology most commonly associated with the creation of the country’s closest ideological twin—Israel. Devji’s argument is simple: in order to understand the enigma represented by Pakistan and Israel we must cease to assume that either is a ‘nation’ in the conventional sense. Instead, Pakistan and Israel represent political manifestations of an ideal form of the Enlightenment state that harks back to an earlier moment in the Enlightenment when the coming together of peoples was seen to rest on (the fantasy of) political consent, legitimized by the force of an idea alone. In this sense, both countries stand apart from the trajectory of nineteenth-century European nationalism, which judged the nation to be the hallmark of a collective attachment born of shared blood and soil….. Devji argues what distinguished Pakistan and Israel from these earlier state forms was the conscious invocation of religion as the basis of their social contracts…..

The focus of Devji’s interest is neither Islam in Pakistan, nor indeed Judaism in Israel, after independence. Instead he is concerned to highlight the nationalist moment when religion as ‘the empty idea of a national will untrammelled by anything given outside the idea itself’ was pregnant with radical possibilities (Devji 2013: 47). This is not to say that Devji is indifferent to the trajectory of ‘religion’ in the unfolding of the social contract in Israel and Pakistan. As he observes, ‘religion’ as an idea of belonging that holds the ‘nation’ together still endures in one important respect in the life of these two independent states. For notwithstanding their statehood, both Israel and Pakistan still determine their nationality by reference neither to shared territory nor common descent but by the question: ‘who is a Jew and who is a Muslim’ (p. 48).

These all critics of Islam deny established realities and say:

·       That the migration of Indian Muslim to Pakistan should not be seen to rest on political consent, legitimized by the force of an idea alone.

·       Religion was not the ‘the empty idea of a national will untrammeled by anything given outside the idea itself’ for the creation of Pakistan

·       Against all evidence on the contrary that Pakistan was created for entirely economic reasons and religion simply merely intervened  

Additional reading:

Agenda-setting theory 

Bernard Cohen observed that the press

"may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about. The world will look different to different people," Cohen continues, "depending on the map that is drawn for them by writers, editors, and publishers of the paper they read."

 As early as the 1960s, Cohen had expressed the idea that later led to formalization of agenda-setting theory by McCombs and Shaw.

Agenda-setting theory describes the "ability (of the news media) to influence the importance placed on the topics of the public agenda".

Examples of Agenda Setting Theory

The Clinton scandal and the Watergate scandal are some of the prime examples

These scandals created a media frenzy and became sensational news for years.

What people thought and media showed are correlated as the most important issue in the election. The theory put forward the idea that news media creates public agenda by making people think things they want to show. For example, a media stressing on what type of work each gender should do, completely neglecting the idea of gender equality, creates similar mindset in the people.

Media provide cues to public which tells them where they should focus their attention. This way political reality is set by the media. Similarly, another media theorist, Walter Lippman, has also written about the Agenda Setting Theory in 1922.

These are the levels of agenda setting theory:

First Level:

The first level is usually used by the researchers to study media uses and its objectives or the influences that media creates on people and the most proximal thought that people will have on the exposure to the information given by media house.

Second level:

At the second level, the media focuses on how people should think about the nature of the issues. Thus, sensationalization of news reports may happen to bring in the interest of the audience. In fact, media wants to grab attention and implant thoughts in people minds about some serious issues. That’s why media turn certain issues viral.

Agenda setting theory is used in a political ad, campaigns, business news, PR (public relation) etc. The main concept associated with the theory is gatekeeping. Gatekeeping is in charge of and has control of the selection of content discussed in the media. It is assumed that the public cares mostly about the product of a media gatekeeping. Editors are the main gatekeepers of media itself. The news media decides ‘what’ events to broadcast and show through the media ‘gates’ on the basis of ‘newsworthiness’.

For e.g.: News Comes from various sources, editors choose what should appear and what should not that’s why they are called as gatekeepers.

Gatekeepers are the powerful authority who ensure the right material is disseminated to mass. Because some issues are important to media but not to masses. Also they are much concern on not to distort peace and public stability.

Priming

The responsibility of the media in proposing the values and standards through which the objects gain a certain amount of attention can be judged. The media’s content will provide a sufficient amount of time and space to certain issues, making it more vivid.

In simple words, the media gives the utmost importance to a certain event such that it gives people the impression that that particular news is the most important one. This is done on a daily basis. The selected news report is carried on as a heading or covered regularly for months. For example, terms such as headlines, special news features, discussions, expert opinions are used. Media primes news by repeating the news and giving it more importance like, for example, Nuclear Deal.

Framing

Framing is a process of selective control. It has two meanings.

1.    The way in which news content is typically shaped and contextualized within the same frame of reference.

2.  Audience adopts the frames of reference and to see the world in a similar way. This is how people attach importance to a piece of news and perceive its context within which an issue is viewed.

Framing deals with how people attach importance to certain news. For example, in the case of an attack, defeat, win and loss, the media frames the news in such a way that people perceive from a different angle.

We can take the Kargil War between India and Pakistan as an example. In both the countries, the news reports were framed in such a way they show their own country in a positive light and the other in the negative. So depending on which media people have access to, their perception will differ.

Examples of Framing Theory

Framing can be seen in same information used as base but different angles to the same story with same facts. These incidences cause arguments and debates in people. Media creates rhetoric or persuasion. Political parties specially attempt to show news to favor their own views.

Example. There are many prominent examples of framing e.g. proposing the risk of losing 10 out of 100 lives vs the opportunity to save 90 out of 100 lives, advertising beef that is 95% lean vs 5% fat, or motivating people by offering a $5 reward vs imposing a $5 penalty (Levin, Schneider, & Gaeth, 1998).

Framing Theory

in Mass communication

By Shraddha Bajracharya 

Framing Theory is an adaptation of Agenda Setting Theory, both theories talk about how media diverts the attention of audience from importance of an issue to what it wants to project and it is used to know media effects. It sets a point of view by having a field of meaning. Frame is how a specific piece of information is shown by the media to audience and how it is organized or structured. Frame influences the mindset (perception) of people and impacts their decision making on the topic which is changed by media. The changing of perception can be taken as second level of agenda setting.

Agenda setting theory just tells what to think about but framing theory tells how to think about the information. So, framing theory is also known as second level agenda setting theory. Framing theory was prepared by Goffman in his book Frame Analysis (1974) which argued that people “locate, perceive, identify and label” events and occurrences. The theory was also talked about by Robert Entman, Jim A. Kuypers and many others.

Exercise: When an author quotes ‘Faisal Devji’, he applies agenda-setting theory, Priming  Or Framing or none of these

Additional reading:

                                                

Cherry picking

Cherry picking, suppressing evidence, or the fallacy of incomplete evidence is the act of pointing to individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular position while ignoring a significant portion of related cases or data that may contradict that position. It is a kind of fallacy of selective attention, the most common example of which is the confirmation bias.

The term is based on the perceived process of harvesting fruit, such as cherries. The picker would be expected to only select the ripest and healthiest fruits. An observer who only sees the selected fruit may thus wrongly conclude that most, or even all, of the tree's fruit is in a likewise good condition. This can also give a false impression of the quality of the fruit (since it is only a sample and is not a representative sample). A concept sometimes confused with cherry picking is the idea of gathering only the fruit that is easy to harvest, while ignoring other fruit that is higher up on the tree and thus more difficult to obtain.

Cherry picking has a negative connotation as the practice neglects, overlooks or directly suppresses evidence that could lead to a complete picture.

Confirmation bias 

Confirmation bias occurs when a person interprets a situation according to their own pre-existing beliefs. Also known as "myside bias," the slanted cognitive perspective ignores information that invalidates their opinion. Each new set of evidence serves to prove what the person already believes, reinforcing one's personal bias and stereotypes.

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or strengthens one's prior personal beliefs or hypotheses. It is a type of cognitive bias. People display this bias when they gather or remember information selectively, or when they interpret it in a biased way. The effect is stronger for desired outcomes, for emotionally charged issues, and for deeply-entrenched beliefs.

People also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position. Biased search, interpretation and memory have been invoked to explain attitude polarization (when a disagreement becomes more extreme even though the different parties are exposed to the same evidence), belief perseverance (when beliefs persist after the evidence for them is shown to be false), the irrational primacy effect (a greater reliance on information encountered early in a series) and illusory correlation (when people falsely perceive an association between two events or situations).

A series of psychological experiments in the 1960s suggested that people are biased toward confirming their existing beliefs. Later work re-interpreted these results as a tendency to test ideas in a one-sided way, focusing on one possibility and ignoring alternatives. In certain situations, this tendency can bias people's conclusions. Explanations for the observed biases include wishful thinking and the limited human capacity to process information. Another explanation is that people show confirmation bias because they are weighing up the costs of being wrong, rather than investigating in a neutral, scientific way. However, even scientists and intelligent people can be prone to confirmation bias.

Question:  does an author sufferes from Confirmation bias or does cherry picking in quoting if you think he does so explain how and if you think he does not so explain how

Does an author do cherry picking

Additional reading:

Gatekeeping Theory

by Shraddha Bajracharya in Mass communication

Billions of events take place around the globe in a single day. People cannot access them all, so they use these mediators to manage the information according to relevancy and proximity. Gatekeeping is the information managing process by media for selecting information to be broadcasted in media on the basis of the type of information, content, nature of information, type of event, etc. The process explains why and how some information are published and some are not. Gate is the choosing criteria which is used to select information to be given in the media or blocking unwanted things. When gatekeeping is done, the view of audience is affected.

The word gatekeeping was proposed by Kurt Zadek Lewin in 1943, who was a social psychologist. The theory was used for mass communication and news dissemination by David Manning White.

Concepts in Gate keeping Theory

Gate keeping is the process of selection of information according to importance and relevance. The information is also published according to the amount of importance the media wants the information to have.

Gatekeepers establish a hierarchy of information which people need to look at as important and the perceived to be a need. They have a great responsibility to provide unbiased, true information. Lewin used “unfreeze – change – refreeze” approach for gatekeeping which suggests that information must be edited after unfreezing it, changed what is says and then refreezed. The refreezed version is then available to audiences.

Criteria of selecting depend on the issues that affect many people, controversial topics, and issues that can be the most popular.

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Factors of Gatekeeping

The factors that influence gatekeeping are:

§  Individual:
Journalist who creates the report is the person who is the most influential to make the news article. Other gatekeepers just change some aspects of the news but the reporter states truth.

§  Routine:
The themes shown in the news and other media is always in a pattern. Media also have schedules to follow and have allocated time for each category.

§  Organization:
Media organizations have their own views, agendas and propaganda. They also have to follow certain rules and ethics. The news or other media products has some elements of the media house’s opinions and views.

§  Extra-Media:
Many media related people and institutions have a say in what is published like sponsors, advertisers, government, etc.

§  Ideology:
The societal ideologies must be followed by media as it influences what is reported. The norms and values of people must be respected by media. Similarly, ethical issues must also be taken care of.

New technologies have let journalists to expand the number of audiences and increased the rate of interactions with them(audience). Gatekeeping process has changed with it too as anyone can publish anything. Though there are still issues of credibility.

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Features of Gatekeeping Theory

§  It is a process of selection and filtering of items for media and editing it as per the requirements like limited time or space.

§  The function of gatekeeping is surveillance.

§  Gatekeeping sets the standard for newsworthiness.

§  Editor who works as a gatekeeper changes news as the person has his/her own subjective perceptions.

§  Media plays a role of a watchdog.

§  There are many factors for gatekeeping like the organizational policies.

§  The theory is descriptive with normative traits.

§  Information moves in a step by step process in a structure.

§  It is also used as a social control for media influence.

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Examples of Gatekeeping Theory

Ice skating is not popular in countries with tropical climate. If the media of those countries show those issues, people will not have any interest and might totally skip the page or change channels in television. The topic is not appropriate for the area but can be very famous topic for countries like South Korea or Finland. The editor must try to replace the story with something else.

Similarly, in a country having a civil war, if media publishes one sided story, the war will become more ferocious. So, the editors must see to it that the news published is not supporting one side and victimizing them.

For instance,

N is the source of the news

N 1,2,3,4 are news items

N 1, 4 are not selected news items

N 2, 3 are selected news items that passes through gate

M is the audience

Here,

N is a journalist

N1 is news on rain in Norway

N2 is news on turmoil in Syria

N3 is news on Barack Obama

N4 is news on problems of local youth meeting

M is the audience living in the U.S.

Gatekeeper is the editor of a national level newspaper.

N2 and N3 are selected news as N2 is an important international issue. Whereas, N1 and N4 are discarded as one is an unimportant international news and the other is local news which is not of interest in national level. The audience only gets to listen to N2 and N3 as the other two is not selected by the editor. If the editor is biased, newspaper will be biased and create prejudices among people.

Burma can be taken as a perfect example of gatekeeping in media. Media is controlled by government and censor all international news that can affect the Burmese government. Government acts as a single and most powerful gate.

Gieber was a researcher who investigated 16 daily newspapers and found that editors thought of the top news to be their utmost responsibility. Other responsibilities were content and structure.
Criticisms of Gatekeeping Theory

§  The theory suggests there is only one gate, but in reality, there might be many.

§  Gatekeepers themselves are wired to think in a specific way.

§  Editors and other gatekeepers change the priority of news causing influence in society like racism, sexism, classism, etc.

§  It can cause negative presentations and abuse of power.

§  The reality might not be shown as it is.

§  The theory also has appeal as well as plausibility and applicability.

§  Gatekeeping has become less in today’s news broadcast due to internet media and people posting anything and everything.

Question: suppose an author says, his quoting of ‘Faisal Devji’ is a perfect example of gatekeeping so what does it mean?

  Additional reading:

How do you write an introduction?

1.  Start your introduction broad, but not too broad. ...

2.  Provide relevant background, but don't begin your true argument. ...

3.  Provide a thesis. ...

4.  Provide only helpful, relevant information. ...

5.  Convince the reader that your essay is worth reading.

An introduction is the first paragraph of a written research paper, or the first thing you say in an oral presentation, or the first thing people see, hear, or experience about your project.

It has two parts:

1. A general introduction to the topic you will be discussing

2. Your Thesis Statement

Without an introduction it is sometimes very difficult for your audience to figure out what you are trying to say. There needs to be a thread of an idea that they will follow through your paper or presentation. The introduction gives the reader the beginning of the piece of thread so they can follow it.

For the example, the regular text is the general introduction to the topic. The BOLD text is the writer's Thesis Statement.

Example 1

Teenagers in many American cities have been involved in more gangs in the last five years than ever before. These gangs of teens have been committing a lot of violent crimes. The victims of these crimes are both gang members and people outside of gangs. Many people do not want to travel to areas in our cities because of the danger from this problem.  For this terrible situation to stop, it is going to take a combined effort on the part of many people. Excellent, supervised after-school programs, more jobs available for teens, and healthy family relationships will go a long way towards ending this crisis in our society.

Example 2

During the Middle Ages in Europe and the Middle East there was much armed conflict between Christians and Muslims. Christians called these conflicts the Crusades because they were fighting under the sign of the cross to save the holy lands of the Bible from being desecrated by non-Christians. However, the true reason for fighting for these lands was less than holy. It was mainly a desire for economic gain that prompted the Christian leaders to send soldiers to fight in the Holy Land.

A thesis statement 

A thesis statement focuses your ideas into one or two sentences. It should present the topic of your paper and also make a comment about your position in relation to the topic. Your thesis statement should tell your reader what the paper is about and also help guide your writing and keep your argument focused.

Every paper you write should have a main point, a main idea, or central message. The argument(s) you make in your paper should reflect this main idea. The sentence that captures your position on this main idea is what we call a thesis statement.

You should provide a thesis early in your essay -- in the introduction, or in longer essays in the second paragraph -- in order to establish your position and give your reader a sense of direction.

Your thesis should be limited to what can be accomplished in the specified number of pages. Shape your topic so that you can get straight to the "meat" of it. Being specific in your paper will be much more successful than writing about general things that do not say much. 

Compare this original thesis (too general) with three possible revisions (more focused, each presenting a different approach to the same topic):

• Original thesis:

·         There are serious objections to today's horror movies.

• Revised theses:

·         Because modern cinematic techniques have allowed filmmakers to get more graphic, horror flicks have desensitized young American viewers to violence.

·         The violence in "bloodbath" slasher movies degrades both men and women.

·         Today's slasher movies fail to deliver the emotional catharsis that 1930s horror films did.

·         Original thesis: Although the timber wolf is a timid and gentle animal, it is being systematically exterminated. [if it's so timid and gentle -- why is it being exterminated?]

·         Revised thesis: Although the timber wolf is actually a timid and gentle animal, it is being systematically exterminated because people wrongfully believe it to be a fierce and cold-blooded killer.

Does your thesis include a comment about your position on the issue at hand?

The thesis statement should do more than merely announce the topic; it must reveal what position you will take in relation to that topic, how you plan to analyze/evaluate the subject or the issue. In short, instead of merely stating a general fact or resorting to a simplistic pro/con statement, you must decide what it is you have to say.

Tips:

• Avoid merely announcing the topic; your original and specific "angle" should be clear. In this way you will tell your reader why your take on the issue matters.

·         Original thesis: In this paper, I will discuss the relationship between fairy tales and early childhood.

·         Revised thesis: Not just empty stories for kids, fairy tales shed light on the psychology of young children.

• Avoid making universal or pro/con judgments that oversimplify complex issues.

·         Original thesis: We must save the whales.

·         Revised thesis: Because our planet's health may depend upon biological diversity, we should save the whales.

• When you make a (subjective) judgment call, specify and justify your reasoning. “Just because” is not a good reason for an argument.

·         Original thesis: Socialism is the best form of government for Kenya.

·         Revised thesis: If the government takes over industry in Kenya, the industry will become more efficient.

• Avoid merely reporting a fact. Say more than what is already proven fact. Go further with your ideas. Otherwise… why would your point matter?

·         Original thesis: Hoover's administration was rocked by scandal.

·         Revised thesis: The many scandals of Hoover's administration revealed basic problems with the Republican Party's nominating process.

Do not expect to come up with a fully formulated thesis statement before you have finished writing the paper. The thesis will inevitably change as you revise and develop your ideas—and that is ok! Start with a tentative thesis and revise as your paper develops.

Is your thesis statement original?

Avoid, avoid, avoid generic arguments and formula statements. They work well to get a rough draft started, but will easily bore a reader. Keep revising until the thesis reflects your real ideas.

Tip: The point you make in the paper should matter:

• Be prepared to answer “So what?” about your thesis statement.
• Be prepared to explain why the point you are making is worthy of a paper. Why should the reader read it?

Compare the following:

• Original thesis:

·         There are advantages and disadvantages to using statistics. (a fill-in-the-blank formula)

• Revised theses:

·         Careful manipulation of data allows a researcher to use statistics to support any claim she desires.

·         In order to ensure accurate reporting, journalists must understand the real significance of the statistics they report.

·         Because advertisers consciously and unconsciously manipulate data, every consumer should learn how to evaluate statistical claims.

Avoid formula and generic words. Search for concrete subjects and active verbs, revising as many "to be" verbs as possible. A few suggestions below show how specific word choice sharpens and clarifies your meaning.

·         Original: “Society is...” [who is this "society" and what exactly is it doing?]

·         Revised: "Men and women will learn how to...," "writers can generate...," "television addicts may chip away at...," "American educators must decide...," "taxpayers and legislators alike can help fix..."

·         Original: "the media"

·         Revised: "the new breed of television reporters," "advertisers," "hard-hitting print journalists," "horror flicks," "TV movies of the week," "sitcoms," "national public radio," "Top 40 bop-til-you-drop..."

·         Original: "is, are, was, to be" or "to do, to make"

·         Revised: any great action verb you can concoct: "to generate," "to demolish," "to batter," "to revolt," "to discover," "to flip," "to signify," "to endure..."

Use your own words in thesis statements; avoid quoting. Crafting an original, insightful, and memorable thesis makes a distinct impression on a reader. You will lose credibility as a writer if you become only a mouthpiece or a copyist; you will gain credibility by grabbing the reader with your own ideas and words.

A well-crafted thesis statement reflects well-crafted ideas. It signals a writer who has intelligence, commitment, and enthusiasm.

Thesis Statement: Bad vs. Good

·         Bad: Everyone should exercise.
- Why should I? What's in it for me?
Good: Americans should add exercise to their daily morning routine because it not only keeps their bodies at a healthy weight but also reduces the risk of high blood pressure.
- Here, we've made several specifications i.e. Americans (not everyone), the morning routine (not the evening), weight maintenance, and high blood pressure prevention. Your research actually becomes easier when you have very specific objectives.

·         Bad: High levels of alcohol consumption are bad for you.
- This is too broad. What are the specific detriments of alcohol consumption that you would like to discuss?
Good: High levels of alcohol consumption have detrimental effects on your personal health, such as weight gain, heart disease, and liver complications.
- Notice we got very specific in our reasons why. In your thesis statement, you don't need to state every single detriment you're going to lay out (in fact, you shouldn't as it will risk becoming a run-on sentence) but you can point to the main areas you will explore.

·         Bad: Reading can develop a child's analytical mind.
- Words like "can," aren't strong enough. This thesis statement begs the question of how? If you're about to write several paragraphs (or pages) about a topic make sure you can confidently defend every point you make.
Good: Reading develops a child's mind by fostering comprehension skills, increasing vocabulary, and exposing them to new worlds they might not otherwise encounter.
- Now, we've not just stated that reading is good, we've provided a sampling of all the benefits we're about to bring to light in our paper.

·         Bad: All retirees should relocate to Florida.
- Your research paper or essay will need to delve into numerous supporting claims. This broad thesis statement runs the risk of allowing you to go off on several tangents.
Good: Retirees should relocate to Florida, where 75% of Americans choose to settle, because you will afford yourself the opportunity to develop a wide array of friendships.
- From here, you can introduce a paragraph on the importance of friendship and then cite studies or testimonials describing how people can discover these important new relationships.

·         Bad: The internet has improved the lives of many.
- Again, while readers may agree with this and your statement may be true, how has the internet improved people's lives? Also, you should run your thesis statement past the "What's in it for me?" test. Why should readers care?
Good: The internet serves as a means of expediently connecting people across the globe, fostering new friendships and an exchange of ideas that wouldn't have occurred prior to its inception.
- While the internet offers a host of benefits, we're choosing to hone in on its ability to foster new friendships and exchange ideas. We'd also have to prove how this couldn't have happened prior to the internet's inception - and that is good. The tighter your focus, the better your paper.

·         Bad: Organ donors should be financially compensated.
- Why? What happens to them that causes you to take this stance?
Good: Given the grueling surgery and lifelong changes they endure, kidney donors should be financially compensated for their act of self-sacrifice.
- There are many forms of living organ donation. As with any good thesis, you want to get as specific as possible. Now, our stance is clear and the reader will understand that we're about to describe the grueling process of kidney donation as well as any forthcoming lifestyle changes.

Finding Your Point of View

A good thesis statement is developed from the point of view of the reader. Be very careful you're not developing a topic that is of interest to you alone. This is a harsh yet necessary question to ask yourself: will my readers have any reason to care about what I'm writing?

In the example about European travel above, readers might be interested in travel around Europe but will they be interested in solo travel, and greater independence and confidence? Hopefully, the answer is yes. Just make sure you examine all viewpoints before investing your valuable time in a well-written piece.

A thesis statement is powerful on two fronts. First, it allows the reader to get excited about what, specifically, is coming their way. Second, it stands as the point of reference for your entire paper.

Think of it as a loving mother steering her children away from danger. Essay writers run the risk of getting off track and wandering into thickly wooded forests of needless tangents. (This is also why a well-planned outline is essential.) However, a solid thesis statement will help keep you in check. Refer back to it and ask have you wandered off topic?
Always Be Specific

When searching for a new home, realtors will tell you there are three important factors: location, location, and location. When developing your one-sentence thesis statement, it is important for you to be: specific, specific, specific. Write your thesis statement once and then rewrite it again with greater specificity.

Also, make sure your audience will want to learn these new facts and possibly embrace these new opinions. Now, you have a compass for your entire paper, keeping you safely on course.

Exercise: The flaw of an article titled critics of Islam that it has no introduction thus has no thesis statement. You read a whole article and write introduction that contains thesis statement.

What is a topic sentence?

A topic sentence is a sentence that introduces a paragraph by presenting the one topic that will be the focus of that paragraph. 

The structure of a paragraph should imitate the organization of a paper. Just like the thesis statement gives the main idea of the paper at the essay level, the topic sentence gives the main idea at the paragraph level. The rest of the paragraph then supports that topic.

Topic sentences should:

• Be specific and have a narrower focus than your thesis statement.

• Appear in or near the first sentence of the paragraph.
• Introduce the topic of the paragraph.

 A topic sentence is a sentence that introduces a paragraph by presenting the one topic that will be the focus of that paragraph. The structure of a paragraph should imitate the organization of a paper.

 Examples of Topic Sentence:

·         In a paragraph about a summer vacation: My summer vacation at my grandparents' farm was filled with hard work and fun.

·         In a paragraph about school uniforms: School uniforms would help us to feel more unity as a student body.

·         In a paragraph about how to make a peanut butter and jelly sandwich:

Exercise:

Provide topic sentences to paragraphs of an article tiled critics of Islam,